Heated liners for treating subsurface hydrocarbon containing formations

ABSTRACT

A heating system for a subsurface formation includes a first tubular located in the subsurface formation and a second tubular. At least a portion of the first tubular is positioned in the second tubular. At least a portion of two or more electrical conductors are positioned between an outer surface of the first tubular and an inner surface of the second tubular. The electrical conductors are configured to provide heat to the subsurface formation when an electrical current is applied to the electrical conductors.

PRIORITY CLAIM

This patent application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent No.61/168,498 entitled “SYSTEMS, METHODS, AND PROCESSES UTILIZED FORTREATING SUBSURFACE HYDROCARBON CONTAINING FORMATIONS” to Vinegar et al.filed on Apr. 10, 2009; U.S. Provisional Patent No. 61/250,218 entitled“TREATING SUBSURFACE HYDROCARBON CONTAINING FORMATIONS AND THE SYSTEMS,METHODS, AND PROCESSES UTILIZED” to D'Angelo III et al. filed on Oct. 9,2009; U.S. Provisional Patent No. 61/250,337 entitled “APPARATUS ANDMETHODS FOR SPLICING INSULATED CONDUCTORS” to D'Angelo III et al. filedon Oct. 9, 2009; U.S. Provisional Patent No. 61/250,347 entitled“DISTRIBUTED TEMPERATURE MONITORING USING INSULATED CONDUCTORS” to Burnset al. filed on Oct. 9, 2009; and to U.S. Provisional Patent No.61/250,353 entitled “SALT BASED DOWNHOLE TEMPERATURE MONITORS” to Nguyenet al. filed on Oct. 9, 2009.

RELATED PATENTS

This patent application incorporates by reference in its entirety eachof U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,688,387 to Wellington et al.; 6,991,036 toSumnu-Dindoruk et al.; 6,698,515 to Karanikas et al.; 6,880,633 toWellington et al.; 6,782,947 to de Rouffignac et al.; 6,991,045 toVinegar et al.; 7,073,578 to Vinegar et al.; 7,121,342 to Vinegar etal.; 7,320,364 to Fairbanks; 7,527,094 to McKinzie et al.; 7,584,789 toMo et al.; 7,533,719 to Hinson et al.; and 7,562,707 to Miller; U.S.Patent Application Publication Nos. 2009-0071652 to Vinegar et al.;2009-0189617 to Burns et al.; 2010-0071903 to Prince-Wright et al.; andU.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/576,697 to Nguyen et al.

BACKGROUND

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates generally to methods and systems forproduction of hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other products from varioussubsurface formations such as hydrocarbon containing formations.

2. Description of Related Art

Hydrocarbons obtained from subterranean formations are often used asenergy resources, as feedstocks, and as consumer products. Concerns overdepletion of available hydrocarbon resources and concerns over decliningoverall quality of produced hydrocarbons have led to development ofprocesses for more efficient recovery, processing and/or use ofavailable hydrocarbon resources. In situ processes may be used to removehydrocarbon materials from subterranean formations that were previouslyinaccessible and/or too expensive to extract using available methods.Chemical and/or physical properties of hydrocarbon material in asubterranean formation may need to be changed to allow hydrocarbonmaterial to be more easily removed from the subterranean formationand/or increase the value of the hydrocarbon material. The chemical andphysical changes may include in situ reactions that produce removablefluids, composition changes, solubility changes, density changes, phasechanges, and/or viscosity changes of the hydrocarbon material in theformation.

Large deposits of heavy hydrocarbons (heavy oil and/or tar) contained inrelatively permeable formations (for example in tar sands) are found inNorth America, South America, Africa, and Asia. Tar can be surface-minedand upgraded to lighter hydrocarbons such as crude oil, naphtha,kerosene, and/or gas oil. Surface milling processes may further separatethe bitumen from sand. The separated bitumen may be converted to lighthydrocarbons using conventional refinery methods. Mining and upgradingtar sand is usually substantially more expensive than producing lighterhydrocarbons from conventional oil reservoirs.

Obtaining permeability in an oil shale formation between injection andproduction wells tends to be difficult because oil shale is oftensubstantially impermeable. Drilling such wells may be expensive and timeconsuming. Many methods have attempted to link injection and productionwells.

Many different types of wells or wellbores may be used to treat thehydrocarbon containing formation using an in situ heat treatmentprocess. In some embodiments, vertical and/or substantially verticalwells are used to treat the formation. In some embodiments, horizontalor substantially horizontal wells (such as J-shaped wells and/orL-shaped wells), and/or u-shaped wells are used to treat the formation.In some embodiments, combinations of horizontal wells, vertical wells,and/or other combinations are used to treat the formation. In certainembodiments, wells extend through the overburden of the formation to ahydrocarbon containing layer of the formation. In some situations, heatin the wells is lost to the overburden. In some situations, surface andoverburden infrastructures used to support heaters and/or productionequipment in horizontal wellbores or u-shaped wellbores are large insize and/or numerous.

Wellbores for heater, injection, and/or production wells may be drilledby rotating a drill bit against the formation. The drill bit may besuspended in a borehole by a drill string that extends to the surface.In some cases, the drill bit may be rotated by rotating the drill stringat the surface. Sensors may be attached to drilling systems to assist indetermining direction, operating parameters, and/or operating conditionsduring drilling of a wellbore. Using the sensors may decrease the amountof time taken to determine positioning of the drilling systems. Forexample, U.S. Pat. No. 7,093,370 to Hansberry and U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. 2009-0207041 to Zaeper et al., both of whichare incorporated herein by reference, describe a borehole navigationsystems and/or sensors to drill wellbores in hydrocarbon formations. Atpresent, however, there are still many hydrocarbon containing formationswhere drilling wellbores is difficult, expensive, and/or time consuming.

Heaters may be placed in wellbores to heat a formation during an in situprocess. There are many different types of heaters which may be used toheat the formation. Examples of in situ processes utilizing downholeheaters are illustrated in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,634,961 to Ljungstrom;2,732,195 to Ljungstrom; 2,780,450 to Ljungstrom; 2,789,805 toLjungstrom; 2,923,535 to Ljungstrom; 4,886,118 to Van Meurs et al.; and6,688,387 to Wellington et al.; each of which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,575,052 to Sandberg et al. and U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. 2008-0135254 to Vinegar et al., each of which areincorporated herein by reference, describe an in situ heat treatmentprocess that utilizes a circulation system to heat one or more treatmentareas. The circulation system may use a heated liquid heat transferfluid that passes through piping in the formation to transfer heat tothe formation.

Patent Application Publication No. 2009-0095476 to Nguyen et al., whichis incorporated herein by reference, describes a heating system for asubsurface formation that includes a conduit located in an opening inthe subsurface formation. An insulated conductor is located in theconduit. A material is in the conduit between a portion of the insulatedconductor and a portion of the conduit. The material may be a salt. Thematerial is a fluid at operating temperature of the heating system. Heattransfers from the insulated conductor to the fluid, from the fluid tothe conduit, and from the conduit to the subsurface formation.

In situ production of hydrocarbons from tar sand may be accomplished byheating and/or injecting fluids into the formation. U.S. Pat. Nos.4,084,637 to Todd; 4,926,941 to Glandt et al.; 5,046,559 to Glandt, and5,060,726 to Glandt, each of which are incorporated herein by reference,describe methods of producing viscous materials from subterraneanformations that includes passing electrical current through thesubterranean formation. Steam may be injected from the injector wellinto the formation to produce hydrocarbons.

U.S. Pat. No. 3,515,213 to Prats, which is incorporated by referenceherein, describes circulation of a fluid heated at a moderatetemperature from one point within the formation to another for arelatively long period of time until a significant proportion of theorganic components contained in the oil shale formation are converted tooil shale derived fluidizable materials.

U.S. Pat. No. 3,882,941 to Pelofsky, which is incorporate by referenceherein, describes recovering hydrocarbons from oil shale deposits byintroducing hot fluids into the deposits through wells and then shuttingin the wells to allow kerogen in the deposits to be converted to bitumenwhich is then recovered through the wells after an extended period ofsoaking.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,011,154 to Maher et al., which is incorporated herein byreference herein, describes in situ treatment of a kerogen and liquidhydrocarbon containing formation using heat sources to produce pyrolyzedhydrocarbons. Maher also describes an in situ treatment of a kerogen andliquid hydrocarbon containing formation using a heat transfer fluid suchas steam. In an embodiment, a method of treating a kerogen and liquidhydrocarbon containing formation may include injecting a heat transferfluid into a formation. Heat from the heat transfer fluid may transferto a selected section of the formation. The heat from the heat transferfluid may pyrolyze a substantial portion of the hydrocarbons within theselected section of the formation. The produced gas mixture may includehydrocarbons with an average API gravity greater than about 25°.

During some in situ processes, fluids may be introduced or generated inthe formation. Introduced or generated fluids may need to be containedin a treatment area to minimize or eliminate impact of the in situprocess on adjacent areas. During some in situ processes, a barrier maybe formed around all or a portion of the treatment area to inhibitmigration fluids out of or into the treatment area.

A low temperature zone may be used to isolate selected areas ofsubsurface formation for many purposes. U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,032,660 toVinegar et al.; 7,435,037 to McKinzie, II; 7,527,094 to McKinzie et al.;7,500,528 to McKinzie, II et al.; and 7,631,689 to Vinegar et al., andU.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2008-0217003 to Kulhman et al.and 2008-0185147 to Vinegar et al., each of which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describe barrier systems forsubsurface treatment areas.

As discussed above, there has been a significant amount of effort todevelop methods and systems to economically produce hydrocarbons,hydrogen, and/or other products from hydrocarbon containing formations.At present, however, there are still many hydrocarbon containingformations from which hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other productscannot be economically produced. Thus, there is a need for improvedmethods and systems for heating of a hydrocarbon formation andproduction of fluids from the hydrocarbon formation. There is also aneed for improved methods and systems that reduce energy costs fortreating the formation, reduce emissions from the treatment process,facilitate heating system installation, and/or reduce heat loss to theoverburden as compared to hydrocarbon recovery processes that utilizesurface based equipment.

SUMMARY

Embodiments described herein generally relate to systems, methods, andheaters for treating a subsurface formation. Embodiments describedherein also generally relate to heaters that have novel componentstherein. Such heaters can be obtained by using the systems and methodsdescribed herein.

In certain embodiments, the invention provides one or more systems,methods, and/or heaters. In some embodiments, the systems, methods,and/or heaters are used for treating a subsurface formation.

In certain embodiments, a heating system for a subsurface formationincludes: a first tubular located in the subsurface formation; a secondtubular, wherein at least a portion of the first tubular is positionedin the second tubular; and two or more elongated electrical conductors,wherein at least a portion of the electrical conductors are positionedbetween an outer surface of the first tubular and an inner surface ofthe second tubular; wherein the electrical conductors are configured toprovide heat to the subsurface formation when an electrical current isapplied to the electrical conductors.

In certain embodiments, a system for producing fluids from a subsurfaceformation includes: a wellbore in the subsurface formation, wherein thewellbore is configured to allow fluids from the formation to enter asubstantially horizontal section of the wellbore; a first tubularlocated in the wellbore, wherein the first tubular has an opening at anend of the first tubular distal from the surface of the formation; asecond tubular in the wellbore, wherein at least a portion of the firsttubular is positioned in the second tubular; and two or more elongatedelectrical conductors, wherein at least a portion of the electricalconductors are positioned between an outer surface of the first tubularand an inner surface of the second tubular; wherein the electricalconductors are configured to provide heat in the wellbore when anelectrical current is applied to the electrical conductors; and whereinthe system is configured to produce fluids that enter the wellbore tothe surface of the formation through the inside of the first tubular.

In certain embodiments, a method for producing fluids from a subsurfaceformation includes: allowing fluids to enter a substantially horizontalsection of a wellbore in the subsurface formation; producing at leastsome of the fluids through the inside of a first tubular located in thewellbore, wherein the produced fluids enter the first tubular through anopening located at an end of the first tubular distal from the surfaceof the formation; and providing heat to at least a part of thesubstantially horizontal section of the wellbore by applying electricalcurrent to two or more electrical conductors positioned between theouter surface of the first tubular and the inner surface of a secondtubular that at least partially surrounds the first tubular.

In further embodiments, features from specific embodiments may becombined with features from other embodiments. For example, featuresfrom one embodiment may be combined with features from any of the otherembodiments.

In further embodiments, treating a subsurface formation is performedusing any of the methods, systems, or heaters described herein.

In further embodiments, additional features may be added to the specificembodiments described herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Advantages of the present invention may become apparent to those skilledin the art with the benefit of the following detailed description andupon reference to the accompanying drawings in which:

FIG. 1 shows a schematic view of an embodiment of a portion of an insitu heat treatment system for treating a hydrocarbon containingformation.

FIG. 2 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a systemfor treating a liquid stream produced from an in situ heat treatmentprocess.

FIG. 3 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a systemfor forming and transporting tubing to a treatment area.

FIG. 4 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a first group of barrierwells used to form a first barrier and a second group of barrier wellsused to form a second barrier.

FIG. 5 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a dualbarrier system.

FIG. 6 depicts a schematic representation of another embodiment of adual barrier system.

FIG. 7 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a dual barriersystem used to isolate a treatment area in a formation.

FIG. 8 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a breach in afirst barrier of dual barrier system.

FIG. 9 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a breach insecond barrier of dual barrier system.

FIG. 10 depicts a representation of an embodiment of forming a bitumenbarrier in a subsurface formation.

FIG. 11 depicts a representation of another embodiment of forming abitumen barrier in a subsurface formation.

FIGS. 12, 13, and 14 depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater with an outer conductorhaving a ferromagnetic section and a non-ferromagnetic section.

FIGS. 15, 16, 17, and 18 depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater with an outer conductorhaving a ferromagnetic section and a non-ferromagnetic section placedinside a sheath.

FIGS. 19A and 19B depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater.

FIG. 20 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of acomposite conductor with a support member.

FIG. 21 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of acomposite conductor with a support member separating the conductors.

FIG. 22 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of acomposite conductor surrounding a support member.

FIG. 23 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of acomposite conductor surrounding a conduit support member.

FIG. 24 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aconductor-in-conduit heat source.

FIG. 25 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aremovable conductor-in-conduit heat source.

FIG. 26 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of atemperature limited heater in which the support member provides amajority of the heat output below the Curie temperature of theferromagnetic conductor.

FIGS. 27 and 28 depict cross-sectional representations of embodiments oftemperature limited heaters in which the jacket provides a majority ofthe heat output below the Curie temperature of the ferromagneticconductor.

FIGS. 29A and 29B depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater component used in aninsulated conductor heater.

FIG. 30 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor with asemiconductor layer adjacent to and surrounding a core.

FIG. 31 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor with asemiconductor layer inside an electrical insulator and surrounding acore.

FIG. 32 depicts an embodiment of a tapered portion of an insulatedconductor.

FIG. 33 depicts an embodiment of tapered an insulated conductor in anopening.

FIG. 34 depicts an embodiment of tapered an insulated conductor in ahairpin configuration.

FIG. 35 depicts an embodiment of a tapered insulated conductor with acore coupled (shorted) to a jacket with a termination.

FIG. 36 depicts a top view representation of three insulated conductorsin a conduit.

FIG. 37 depicts an embodiment of three-phase wye transformer coupled toa plurality of heaters.

FIG. 38 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment of an endsection of three insulated conductors in a conduit.

FIG. 39 depicts an embodiment of a heater with three insulated cores ina conduit.

FIG. 40 depicts an embodiment of a heater with three insulatedconductors and an insulated return conductor in a conduit.

FIG. 41 depicts a side view cross-sectional representation of oneembodiment of a fitting for joining insulated conductors.

FIG. 42 depicts an embodiment of a cutting tool.

FIG. 43 depicts a side view cross-sectional representation of anotherembodiment of a fitting for joining insulated conductors.

FIG. 44A depicts a side view of a cross-sectional representation of anembodiment of a threaded fitting for coupling three insulatedconductors.

FIG. 44B depicts a side view of a cross-sectional representation of anembodiment of a welded fitting for coupling three insulated conductors.

FIG. 45 depicts an embodiment of a torque tool.

FIG. 46 depicts an embodiment of a clamp assembly that may be used tocompact mechanically a fitting for joining insulated conductors.

FIG. 47 depicts an exploded view of an embodiment of a hydrauliccompaction machine.

FIG. 48 depicts a representation of an embodiment of an assembledhydraulic compaction machine.

FIG. 49 depicts an embodiment of a fitting and insulated conductorssecured in clamp assemblies before compaction of the fitting andinsulated conductors.

FIG. 50 depicts a side view representation of yet another embodiment ofa fitting for joining insulated conductors.

FIG. 51 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment of a fittingwith an opening covered with an insert.

FIG. 52 depicts an embodiment of a fitting with electric field reducingfeatures between the jackets of the insulated conductors and the sleevesand at the ends of the insulated conductors.

FIG. 53 depicts an embodiment of an electric field stress reducer.

FIG. 54 depicts a cross-sectional representation of a fitting asinsulated conductors are being moved into the fitting.

FIG. 55 depicts a cross-sectional representation of a fitting withinsulated conductors joined inside the fitting.

FIGS. 56, 57, and 58 depict an embodiment of a block pushing device thatmay be used to provide axial force to blocks in a heater assembly.

FIG. 59 depicts an embodiment of a plunger with a cross-sectional shapethat allows the plunger to provide force on the blocks but not on thecore inside the jacket.

FIG. 60 depicts an embodiment of a plunger that may be used to pushoffset (staggered) blocks.

FIG. 61 depicts an embodiment of a plunger that may be used to pushtop/bottom arranged blocks.

FIG. 62 depicts an embodiment of an outer tubing partially unspooledfrom a coiled tubing rig.

FIG. 63 depicts an embodiment of a heater being pushed into outer tubingpartially unspooled from a coiled tubing rig.

FIG. 64 depicts an embodiment of a heater being fully inserted intoouter tubing with a drilling guide coupled to the end of the heater.

FIG. 65 depicts an embodiment of a heater, outer tubing, and drillingguide spooled onto a coiled tubing rig.

FIG. 66 depicts an embodiment of a coiled tubing rig being used toinstall a heater and outer tubing into an opening using a drillingguide.

FIG. 67 depicts an embodiment of a heater and outer tubing installed inan opening.

FIG. 68 depicts an embodiment of outer tubing being removed from anopening while leaving a heater installed in the opening.

FIG. 69 depicts an embodiment of outer tubing used to provide a packingmaterial into an opening.

FIG. 70 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of outer tubing beingspooled onto a coiled tubing rig after packing material is provided intoan opening.

FIG. 71 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of outer tubing spooledonto a coiled tubing rig with a heater installed in an opening.

FIG. 72 depicts an embodiment of a heater installed in an opening with awellhead.

FIG. 73 depicts an embodiment of heaters being helically wound on aspool.

FIG. 74 depicts an embodiment of three heaters helically wound together.

FIG. 75 depicts an embodiment of three heaters helically wound around asupport.

FIG. 76 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aninsulated conductor in a conduit with liquid between the insulatedconductor and the conduit.

FIG. 77 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aninsulated conductor heater in a conduit with a conductive liquid betweenthe insulated conductor and the conduit.

FIG. 78 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of aninsulated conductor in a conduit with liquid between the insulatedconductor and the conduit, where a portion of the conduit and theinsulated conductor are oriented horizontally in the formation.

FIG. 79 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aribbed conduit.

FIG. 80 depicts a perspective representation of an embodiment of aportion of a ribbed conduit.

FIG. 81 depicts a cross-sectional representation an embodiment of aportion of an insulated conductor in a bottom portion of an openwellbore with a liquid between the insulated conductor and theformation.

FIG. 82 depicts a schematic cross-sectional representation of anembodiment of a portion of a formation with heat pipes positionedadjacent to a substantially horizontal portion of a heat source.

FIG. 83 depicts a perspective cut-out representation of a portion of aheat pipe embodiment with the heat pipe located radially around anoxidizer assembly.

FIG. 84 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an angled heat pipeembodiment with an oxidizer assembly located near a lowermost portion ofthe heat pipe.

FIG. 85 depicts a perspective cut-out representation of a portion of aheat pipe embodiment with an oxidizer located at the bottom of the heatpipe.

FIG. 86 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an angled heat pipeembodiment with an oxidizer located at the bottom of the heat pipe.

FIG. 87 depicts a perspective cut-out representation of a portion of aheat pipe embodiment with an oxidizer that produces a flame zoneadjacent to liquid heat transfer fluid in the bottom of the heat pipe.

FIG. 88 depicts a perspective cut-out representation of a portion of aheat pipe embodiment with a tapered bottom that accommodates multipleoxidizers.

FIG. 89 depicts a cross-sectional representation of a heat pipeembodiment that is angled within the formation.

FIG. 90 depicts an embodiment of three heaters coupled in a three-phaseconfiguration.

FIG. 91 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment of asubstantially u-shaped three-phase heater in a formation.

FIG. 92 depicts a top view representation of an embodiment of aplurality of triads of three-phase heaters in a formation.

FIG. 93 depicts a top view representation of an embodiment of aplurality of triads of three-phase heaters in a formation withproduction wells.

FIG. 94 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a heat treatment systemthat includes a heater and production wells.

FIG. 95 depicts a side view representation of one leg of a heater in thesubsurface formation.

FIG. 96 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a surfacecabling configuration with a ground loop used for a heater and aproduction well.

FIG. 97 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment of anoverburden portion of a conductor.

FIG. 98 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment ofoverburden portions of conductors grounded to a ground loop.

FIG. 99 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment ofoverburden portions of conductors with the conductors ungrounded.

FIG. 100 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment ofoverburden portions of conductors with the electrically conductiveportions of casings lowered a selected depth below the surface.

FIGS. 101 and 102 depict cross-sectional representations of embodimentsof heaters including three single-phase conductors positioned betweenfirst tubulars and second tubulars.

FIG. 103 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aheater including nine single-phase flexible cable conductors positionedbetween tubulars.

FIG. 104 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aheater including nine single-phase flexible cable conductors positionedbetween tubulars with spacers.

FIG. 105 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aheater including nine multiple flexible cable conductors positionedbetween tubulars.

FIG. 106 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aheater including nine multiple flexible cable conductors positionedbetween tubulars with spacers.

FIG. 107 depicts representation of an embodiment of a liner heater in asubstantially horizontal wellbore used for producing hydrocarbons from ahydrocarbon layer.

FIG. 108 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aconductor with a core of a lead-in section spliced to a core of theremainder of the conductor.

FIG. 109 depicts an embodiment of a wellhead.

FIG. 110 depicts an example of a plot of dielectric constant versustemperature for magnesium oxide insulation in one embodiment of aninsulated conductor heater.

FIG. 111 depicts an example of a plot of loss tangent (tan δ) versustemperature for magnesium oxide insulation in one embodiment of aninsulated conductor heater.

FIG. 112 depicts an example of a plot of leakage current (mA) versustemperature (° F.) for magnesium oxide insulation in one embodiment ofan insulated conductor heater at different applied voltages.

FIG. 113 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor with salt usedas electrical insulator.

FIG. 114 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor locatedproximate heaters in a wellbore.

FIG. 115 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor with voltageapplied to the core and the jacket of the insulated conductor.

FIG. 116 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor with multiplehot spots.

FIG. 117 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment forproducing mobilized fluids from a tar sands formation with a relativelythin hydrocarbon layer.

FIG. 118 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment forproducing mobilized fluids from a tar sands formation with a hydrocarbonlayer that is thicker than the hydrocarbon layer depicted in FIG. 117.

FIG. 119 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment forproducing mobilized fluids from a tar sands formation with a hydrocarbonlayer that is thicker than the hydrocarbon layer depicted in FIG. 118.

FIG. 120 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment forproducing mobilized fluids from a tar sands formation with a hydrocarbonlayer that has a shale break.

FIG. 121 is a representation of an embodiment of production ofhydrocarbons and subsequent treating of a hydrocarbon formation toproduce formation fluid.

FIG. 122 is a representation of an embodiment the use of a situdeasphalting fluid in treating a hydrocarbon formation.

FIG. 123 depicts a top view representation of an embodiment forpreheating using heaters for a drive process.

FIG. 124 depicts a perspective representation of an embodiment forpreheating using heaters for a drive process.

FIG. 125 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment of a tarsands formation subsequent to a steam injection process.

FIG. 126 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment using atleast three treatment sections in a tar sands formation.

FIG. 127 depicts an embodiment for treating a formation with heaters incombination with one or more steam drive processes.

FIG. 128 depicts a comparison treating the formation using theembodiment depicted in FIG. 127 and treating the formation using theSAGD process.

FIG. 129 depicts an embodiment for heating and producing from aformation with a temperature limited heater in a production wellbore.

FIG. 130 depicts an embodiment for heating and producing from aformation with a temperature limited heater and a production wellbore.

FIG. 131 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a first stage oftreating a tar sands formation with electrical heaters.

FIG. 132 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a second stage oftreating the tar sands formation with fluid injection and oxidation.

FIG. 133 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a third stage oftreating the tar sands formation with fluid injection and oxidation.

FIG. 134 depicts a side view representation of a first stage of anembodiment of treating portions in a subsurface formation with heating,oxidation, and/or fluid injection.

FIG. 135 depicts a side view representation of a second stage of anembodiment of treating portions in the subsurface formation withheating, oxidation, and/or fluid injection.

FIG. 136 depicts a side view representation of a third stage of anembodiment of treating portions in subsurface formation with heating,oxidation and/or fluid injection.

FIG. 137 depicts an embodiment of treating a subsurface formation usinga cylindrical pattern.

FIG. 138 depicts an embodiment of treating multiple portions of asubsurface formation in a rectangular pattern.

FIG. 139 is a schematic top view of the pattern depicted in FIG. 138.

FIG. 140 depicts a side view representation of an embodiments oftreating a tar sands formation after treatment of the formation.

FIG. 141 depicts side view representation of another embodiment oftreating a tar sands formation after treatment of the formation.

FIG. 142 depicts a top view representation of an embodiment of treatmentof a hydrocarbon containing formation using an in situ heat treatmentprocess.

FIG. 143 depicts a top view representation of another embodiment oftreatment of a hydrocarbon containing formation using an in situ heattreatment process.

FIG. 144 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment ofsubstantially horizontal heaters positioned in a pattern with consistentspacing in a hydrocarbon layer.

FIG. 145 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment ofsubstantially horizontal heaters positioned in a pattern with irregularspacing in a hydrocarbon layer.

FIG. 146 depicts a graphical representation of a comparison of thetemperature and the pressure over time for two different portions of theformation using the different heating patterns.

FIG. 147 depicts a graphical representation of a comparison of theaverage temperature over time for different treatment areas for twodifferent portions of the formation using the different heatingpatterns.

FIG. 148 depicts a graphical representation of the bottom-hole pressuresfor several producer wells for two different heating patterns.

FIG. 149 depicts a graphical representation of a comparison of thecumulative oil and gas products extracted over time from two differentportions of the formation using the different heating patterns.

FIG. 150 depicts a cross-sectional representation of another embodimentof substantially horizontal heaters positioned in a pattern withirregular spacing in a hydrocarbon layer.

FIG. 151 depicts a cross-sectional representation of another embodimentof substantially horizontal heaters positioned in a pattern withirregular spacing in a hydrocarbon layer.

FIG. 152 depicts a cross-sectional representation of another additionalembodiment of substantially horizontal heaters positioned in a patternwith irregular spacing in a hydrocarbon layer.

FIG. 153 depicts a cross-sectional representation of another embodimentof substantially horizontal heaters positioned in a pattern withconsistent spacing in a hydrocarbon layer.

FIG. 154 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment ofsubstantially horizontal heaters positioned in a pattern with irregularspacing in a hydrocarbon layer, with three rows of heaters in threeheating zones.

FIG. 155 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a systemfor producing oxygen for use in downhole oxidizer assemblies.

FIG. 156 depicts an embodiment of a heater with a heating sectionlocated in a u-shaped wellbore to create a first heated volume.

FIG. 157 depicts an embodiment of a heater with a heating sectionlocated in a u-shaped wellbore to create a second heated volume.

FIG. 158 depicts an embodiment of a heater with a heating sectionlocated in a u-shaped wellbore to create a third heated volume.

FIG. 159 depicts an embodiment of a heater with a heating sectionlocated in an L-shaped or J-shaped wellbore to create a first heatedvolume.

FIG. 160 depicts an embodiment of a heater with a heating sectionlocated in an L-shaped or J-shaped wellbore to create a second heatedvolume.

FIG. 161 depicts an embodiment of a heater with a heating sectionlocated in an L-shaped or J-shaped wellbore to create a third heatedvolume.

FIG. 162 depicts an embodiment of two heaters with heating sectionslocated in a u-shaped wellbore to create two heated volumes.

FIG. 163 depicts a top view of a treatment area treated usingnon-overlapping heating sections in heaters.

FIG. 164 depicts a top view of a treatment area treated usingoverlapping heating sections in the first phase of heating usingheaters.

FIG. 165 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a heattransfer fluid circulation system for heating a portion of a formation.

FIG. 166A depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of anL-shaped heater for use with a heat transfer fluid circulation systemfor heating a portion of a formation.

FIG. 166B depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of anL-shaped heater with a liner for use with a heat transfer fluidcirculation system for heating a portion of a formation.

FIG. 167 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of avertical heater for use with a heat transfer fluid circulation systemfor heating a portion of a formation where thermal expansion of theheater is accommodated below the surface.

FIG. 168 depicts a schematic representation of another embodiment of avertical heater for use with a heat transfer fluid circulation systemfor heating a portion of a formation where thermal expansion of theheater is accommodated above and below the surface.

FIG. 169 depicts a schematic representation of a corridor pattern systemused to treat a treatment area.

FIG. 170 depicts a schematic representation of a radial pattern systemused to treat a treatment area.

FIG. 171 depicts a plan view of an embodiment of wellbore openings on afirst side of a treatment area.

FIG. 172 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of overburdeninsulation that utilizes insulating cement.

FIG. 173 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of overburdeninsulation that utilizes an insulating sleeve.

FIG. 174 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of overburdeninsulation that utilizes an insulating sleeve and a vacuum.

FIG. 175 depicts a representation of an embodiment of bellows used toaccommodate thermal expansion.

FIG. 176A depicts a representation of an embodiment of piping with anexpansion loop for accommodating thermal expansion.

FIG. 176B depicts a representation of an embodiment of piping withcoiled or spooled piping for accommodating thermal expansion.

FIG. 176C depicts a representation of an embodiment of piping withcoiled or spooled piping for accommodating thermal expansion enclosed inan insulated volume.

FIG. 177 depicts a representation of an embodiment of insulated pipingin a large diameter casing in the overburden.

FIG. 178 depicts a representation of an embodiment of insulated pipingin a large diameter casing in the overburden to accommodate thermalexpansion.

FIG. 179 depicts a representation of an embodiment of a wellhead with asliding seal, stuffing box, or other pressure control equipment thatallows a portion of a heater to move relative to the wellhead.

FIG. 180 depicts a representation of an embodiment of a wellhead with aslip joint that interacts with a fixed conduit above the wellhead.

FIG. 181 depicts a representation of an embodiment of a wellhead with aslip joint that interacts with a fixed conduit coupled to the wellhead.

FIG. 182 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a heattransfer fluid circulating system with seals.

FIG. 183 depicts a schematic representation of another embodiment of aheat transfer fluid circulating system with seals.

FIG. 184 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a heattransfer fluid circulating system with locking mechanisms and seals.

FIG. 185 depicts a representation of a u-shaped wellbore with a hot heattransfer fluid circulation system heater positioned in the wellbore.

FIG. 186 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment of a systemfor heating the formation that can use a closed loop circulation systemand/or electrical heating.

FIG. 187 depicts a representation of a heat transfer fluid conduit thatmay initially be resistively heated with the return current pathprovided by an insulated conductor.

FIG. 188 depicts a representation of a heat transfer fluid conduit thatmay initially be resistively heated with the return current pathprovided by two insulated conductors.

FIG. 189 depicts a representation of insulated conductors used toresistively heat heaters of a circulated fluid heating system.

FIG. 190 depicts an end view representation of a heater of a heattransfer fluid circulation system with an insulated conductor heaterpositioned in the piping.

FIG. 191 depicts an end view representation of an embodiment of aconduit-in-conduit heater for a heat transfer circulation heating systemadjacent to the treatment area.

FIG. 192 depicts a representation of an embodiment for heating variousportions of a heater to restart flow of heat transfer fluid in theheater.

FIG. 193 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of conduit-in-conduitheaters of a fluid circulation heating system positioned in theformation.

FIG. 194 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of aconduit-in-conduit heater adjacent to the overburden.

FIG. 195 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of acirculation system for a liquid heat transfer fluid.

FIG. 196 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a systemfor heating the formation using gas lift to return the heat transferfluid to the surface.

FIG. 197 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of avertical conduit-in-conduit heater for use with a heat transfer fluidcirculation system for heating a portion of a formation.

FIG. 198 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of theelectrical resistance of an inner conduit of a conduit-in-conduit heaterover a depth at which a breach has occurred in the inner conduit of theconduit-in-conduit heater.

FIG. 199 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of theelectrical resistance of an outer conduit of a conduit-in-conduit heaterover a depth at which a breach has occurred in the outer conduit of theconduit-in-conduit heater.

FIG. 200 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of theelectrical resistance of an inner conduit of a conduit-in-conduit heaterand the salt block height over an amount of leaked molten salt.

FIG. 201 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of theelectrical resistance of an outer conduit of a conduit-in-conduit heaterand the salt block height over an amount of leaked molten salt.

FIG. 202 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of theelectrical resistance of a conduit of a conduit-in-conduit heater once abreach forms over an average temperature of the molten salt.

FIG. 203 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of avertical heater for use with a heat transfer fluid circulation systemfor heating a portion of a formation including an inert gas based leakdetection system.

FIG. 204 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of thesalt displacement efficiency over time for three different compressedair mass flow rates.

FIG. 205 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of theair volume flow rate at inlet of a conduit over time for three differentcompressed air mass flow rates.

FIG. 206 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of thecompressor discharge pressure over time for three different compressedair mass flow rates.

FIG. 207 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of thesalt volume fraction at outlet of a conduit over time for threedifferent compressed air mass flow rates.

FIG. 208 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of thesalt volume flow rate at outlet of a conduit over time for threedifferent compressed air mass flow rates.

FIG. 209 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of acompressed air shut-down system.

FIG. 210 depicts an end view representation of an embodiment of awellbore in a treatment area undergoing a combustion process.

FIG. 211 depicts an end view representation of an embodiment of awellbore in a treatment area undergoing fluid removal following thecombustion process.

FIG. 212 depicts an end view representation of an embodiment of awellbore in a treatment area undergoing a combustion process usingcirculated molten salt to recover energy from the treatment area.

FIG. 213 depicts a percentage of the expected coke distribution relativeto a distance from a wellbore.

FIG. 214 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of an insitu heat treatment system that uses a nuclear reactor.

FIG. 215 depicts an elevational view of an embodiment of an in situ heattreatment system using pebble bed reactors.

FIG. 216 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of aself-regulating nuclear reactor.

FIG. 217 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of an insitu heat treatment system with u-shaped wellbores using self-regulatingnuclear reactors.

FIG. 218 depicts a schematic representation of a system for heating aformation using carbonate molten salt.

FIG. 219 depicts a schematic representation of a system after heating aformation using carbonate molten salt.

FIG. 220 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of asection of the formation after heating the formation with a carbonatemolten salt.

FIGS. 221A and 221B depict representations of an embodiment of heating ahydrocarbon containing formation in stages.

FIG. 222 is a representation of an embodiment of treating hydrocarbonformations containing sulfur and/or inorganic nitrogen compounds.

FIG. 223 depicts a representation of an embodiment of treatinghydrocarbon formations containing inorganic compounds using selectedheating.

FIG. 224 depicts a representation of an embodiment of treatinghydrocarbon formation using an in situ heat treatment process withsubsurface removal of mercury from formation fluid.

FIG. 225 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment forproducing mobilized fluids from a hydrocarbon formation.

FIG. 226 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment forproducing mobilized fluids from a hydrocarbon formation heated byresidual heat.

FIG. 227 depicts an embodiment of a solution mining well.

FIG. 228 depicts a representation of an embodiment of a portion of asolution mining well.

FIG. 229 depicts a representation of another embodiment of a portion ofa solution mining well.

FIG. 230 depicts an elevational view of a well pattern for solutionmining and/or an in situ heat treatment process.

FIG. 231 depicts a representation of wells of an in situ heatingtreatment process for solution mining and producing hydrocarbons from aformation.

FIG. 232 depicts an embodiment for solution mining a formation.

FIG. 233 depicts an embodiment of a formation with nahcolite layers inthe formation before solution mining nahcolite from the formation.

FIG. 234 depicts the formation of FIG. 233 after the nahcolite has beensolution mined.

FIG. 235 depicts an embodiment of two injection wells interconnected bya zone that has been solution mined to remove nahcolite from the zone.

FIG. 236 depicts a representation of an embodiment for treating aportion of a formation having a hydrocarbon containing formation betweenan upper nahcolite bed and a lower nahcolite bed.

FIG. 237 depicts a representation of a portion of the formation that isorthogonal to the formation depicted in FIG. 236 and passes through oneof the solution mining wells in the upper nahcolite bed.

FIG. 238 depicts an embodiment for heating a formation with dawsonite inthe formation.

FIG. 239 depicts a representation of an embodiment for solution miningwith a steam and electricity cogeneration facility.

FIG. 240 depicts an embodiment of treating a hydrocarbon containingformation with a combustion front.

FIG. 241 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment fortreating a hydrocarbon containing formation with a combustion front.

FIG. 242 depicts a schematic of an embodiment for treating a subsurfaceformation using heat sources having electrically conductive material.

FIG. 243 depicts a schematic of an embodiment for treating a subsurfaceformation using a ground and heat sources having electrically conductivematerial.

FIG. 244 depicts a schematic of an embodiment for treating a subsurfaceformation using heat sources having electrically conductive material andan electrical insulator.

FIG. 245 depicts a schematic of an embodiment for treating a subsurfaceformation using electrically conductive heat sources extending from acommon wellbore.

FIG. 246 depicts an embodiment of a conduit with heating zone claddingand a conductor with overburden cladding.

FIG. 247 depicts a schematic of an embodiment for treating a subsurfaceformation having a shale layer using heat sources having electricallyconductive material.

FIG. 248A depicts a schematic of an embodiment of an electrode with acoated end.

FIG. 248B depicts a schematic of an embodiment of an uncoated electrode.

FIG. 249A depicts a schematic of another embodiment of a coatedelectrode.

FIG. 249B depicts a schematic of another embodiment of an uncoatedelectrode.

FIG. 250 depicts an embodiment of a u-shaped heater that has aninductively energized tubular.

FIG. 251 depicts an embodiment of an electrical conductor centralizedinside a tubular.

FIG. 252 depicts an embodiment of an induction heater with a sheath ofan insulated conductor in electrical contact with a tubular.

FIG. 253 depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of an undergroundtreatment system.

FIG. 254 depicts an exploded perspective view of an embodiment of aportion of an underground treatment system and tunnels.

FIG. 255 depicts another exploded perspective view of an embodiment of aportion of an underground treatment system and tunnels.

FIG. 256 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment for flowingheated fluid through heat sources between tunnels.

FIG. 257 depicts a top view representation of an embodiment for flowingheated fluid through heat sources between tunnels.

FIG. 258 depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of an undergroundtreatment system having heater wellbores spanning between tunnels of theunderground treatment system.

FIG. 259 depicts a top view of an embodiment of tunnels with wellborechambers.

FIG. 260 depicts a top view of an embodiment of development of a tunnel.

FIG. 261 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of an undergroundtreatment system with surface production.

FIG. 262 depicts a side view of an embodiment of an undergroundtreatment system.

FIG. 263 depicts the electric field normal component as a function ofthe location along the length of the heater.

FIG. 264 depicts the electric field strength versus distance from thecore.

FIG. 265 depicts percent of maximum unscreened (no semiconductor layer)field strength and normalized semiconductor layer thickness versusdielectric constant ratio of the electrical insulator and semiconductorlayer.

FIG. 266 depicts electric field strength versus normalized distance fromthe core for several dielectric constant ratios.

FIG. 267 depicts a temperature profile in the formation after 360 daysusing the STARS simulation.

FIG. 268 depicts an oil saturation profile in the formation after 360days using the STARS simulation.

FIG. 269 depicts the oil saturation profile in the formation after 1095days using the STARS simulation.

FIG. 270 depicts the oil saturation profile in the formation after 1470days using the STARS simulation.

FIG. 271 depicts the oil saturation profile in the formation after 1826days using the STARS simulation.

FIG. 272 depicts the temperature profile in the formation after 1826days using the STARS simulation.

FIG. 273 depicts oil production rate and gas production rate versustime.

FIG. 274 depicts weight percentage of original bitumen in place (OBIP)(left axis) and volume percentage of OBIP (right axis) versustemperature (° C.).

FIG. 275 depicts bitumen conversion percentage (weight percentage of(OBIP)) (left axis) and oil, gas, and coke weight percentage (as aweight percentage of OBIP) (right axis) versus temperature (° C.).

FIG. 276 depicts API gravity (°) (left axis) of produced fluids, blowdown production, and oil left in place along with pressure (psig) (rightaxis) versus temperature (° C.).

FIGS. 277A-D depict gas-to-oil ratios (GOR) in thousand cubic feet perbarrel ((Mcf/bbl) (y-axis)) versus temperature (° C.) (x-axis) fordifferent types of gas at a low temperature blow down (about 277° C.)and a high temperature blow down (at about 290° C.).

FIG. 278 depicts coke yield (weight percentage) (y-axis) versustemperature (° C.) (x-axis).

FIGS. 279A-D depict assessed hydrocarbon isomer shifts in fluidsproduced from the experimental cells as a function of temperature andbitumen conversion.

FIG. 280 depicts weight percentage (Wt %) (y-axis) of saturates fromSARA analysis of the produced fluids versus temperature (° C.) (x-axis).

FIG. 281 depicts weight percentage (Wt %) (y-axis) of n-C₇ of theproduced fluids versus temperature (° C.) (x-axis).

FIG. 282 depicts oil recovery (volume percentage bitumen in place (vol %BIP)) versus API gravity (°) as determined by the pressure (MPa) in theformation in an experiment.

FIG. 283 depicts recovery efficiency (%) versus temperature (° C.) atdifferent pressures in an experiment.

FIG. 284 depicts average formation temperature (° C.) versus days forheating a formation using molten salt circulated throughconduit-in-conduit heaters.

FIG. 285 depicts molten salt temperature (° C.) and power injection rate(W/ft) versus time (days).

FIG. 286 depicts temperature (° C.) and power injection rate (W/ft)versus time (days) for heating a formation using molten salt circulatedthrough heaters with a heating length of 8000 ft at a mass flow rate of18 kg/s.

FIG. 287 depicts temperature (° C.) and power injection rate (W/ft)versus time (days) for heating a formation using molten salt circulatedthrough heaters with a heating length of 8000 ft at a mass flow rate of12 kg/s.

FIG. 288 depicts power (W/ft) (y-axis) versus time (yr) (x-axis) of insitu heat treatment power injection requirements.

FIG. 289 depicts power (W/ft) (y-axis) versus time (days) (x-axis) of insitu heat treatment power injection requirements for different spacingsbetween wellbores.

FIG. 290 depicts reservoir average temperature (° C.) (y-axis) versustime (days) (x-axis) of in situ heat treatment for different spacingsbetween wellbores.

FIG. 291 depicts time (hour) versus temperature (° C.) and molten saltconcentration in weight percent.

FIG. 292 depicts heat transfer rates versus time.

FIG. 293 is a graphical representation of asphaltene H/C molar ratios ofhydrocarbons having a boiling point greater than 520° C. versus time(days).

FIG. 294 depicts percentage of degree of saturation (volume water/airvoids) versus time during immersion at a water temperature of 60° C.

FIG. 295 depicts retained indirect tensile strength stiffness modulusversus time during immersion at a water temperature of 60° C.

While the invention is susceptible to various modifications andalternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown by way ofexample in the drawings and may herein be described in detail. Thedrawings may not be to scale. It should be understood, however, that thedrawings and detailed description thereto are not intended to limit theinvention to the particular form disclosed, but on the contrary, theintention is to cover all modifications, equivalents and alternativesfalling within the spirit and scope of the present invention as definedby the appended claims.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following description generally relates to systems and methods fortreating hydrocarbons in the formations. Such formations may be treatedto yield hydrocarbon products, hydrogen, and other products.

“Alternating current (AC)” refers to a time-varying current thatreverses direction substantially sinusoidally. AC produces skin effectelectricity flow in a ferromagnetic conductor.

“Annular region” is the region between an outer conduit and an innerconduit positioned in the outer conduit.

“API gravity” refers to API gravity at 15.5° C. (60° F.). API gravity isas determined by ASTM Method D6822 or ASTM Method D1298.

“ASTM” refers to American Standard Testing and Materials.

In the context of reduced heat output heating systems, apparatus, andmethods, the term “automatically” means such systems, apparatus, andmethods function in a certain way without the use of external control(for example, external controllers such as a controller with atemperature sensor and a feedback loop, PID controller, or predictivecontroller).

“Asphalt/bitumen” refers to a semi-solid, viscous material soluble incarbon disulfide. Asphalt/bitumen may be obtained from refiningoperations or produced from subsurface formations.

“Bare metal” and “exposed metal” refer to metals of elongated membersthat do not include a layer of electrical insulation, such as mineralinsulation, that is designed to provide electrical insulation for themetal throughout an operating temperature range of the elongated member.Bare metal and exposed metal may encompass a metal that includes acorrosion inhibiter such as a naturally occurring oxidation layer, anapplied oxidation layer, and/or a film. Bare metal and exposed metalinclude metals with polymeric or other types of electrical insulationthat cannot retain electrical insulating properties at typical operatingtemperature of the elongated member. Such material may be placed on themetal and may be thermally degraded during use of the heater.

Boiling range distributions for the formation fluid and liquid streamsdescribed herein are as determined by ASTM Method D5307 or ASTM MethodD2887. Content of hydrocarbon components in weight percent forparaffins, iso-paraffins, olefins, naphthenes and aromatics in theliquid streams is as determined by ASTM Method D6730. Content ofaromatics in volume percent is as determined by ASTM Method D1319.Weight percent of hydrogen in hydrocarbons is as determined by ASTMMethod D3343.

“Bromine number” refers to a weight percentage of olefins in grams per100 gram of portion of the produced fluid that has a boiling range below246° C. and testing the portion using ASTM Method D1159.

“Carbon number” refers to the number of carbon atoms in a molecule. Ahydrocarbon fluid may include various hydrocarbons with different carbonnumbers. The hydrocarbon fluid may be described by a carbon numberdistribution. Carbon numbers and/or carbon number distributions may bedetermined by true boiling point distribution and/or gas-liquidchromatography.

“Chemical stability” refers to the ability of a formation fluid to betransported without components in the formation fluid reacting to formpolymers and/or compositions that plug pipelines, valves, and/orvessels.

“Clogging” refers to impeding and/or inhibiting flow of one or morecompositions through a process vessel or a conduit.

“Column X element” or “Column X elements” refer to one or more elementsof Column X of the Periodic Table, and/or one or more compounds of oneor more elements of Column X of the Periodic Table, in which Xcorresponds to a column number (for example, 13-18) of the PeriodicTable. For example, “Column 15 elements” refer to elements from Column15 of the Periodic Table and/or compounds of one or more elements fromColumn 15 of the Periodic Table.

“Column X metal” or “Column X metals” refer to one or more metals ofColumn X of the Periodic Table and/or one or more compounds of one ormore metals of Column X of the Periodic Table, in which X corresponds toa column number (for example, 1-12) of the Periodic Table. For example,“Column 6 metals” refer to metals from Column 6 of the Periodic Tableand/or compounds of one or more metals from Column 6 of the PeriodicTable.

“Condensable hydrocarbons” are hydrocarbons that condense at 25° C. andone atmosphere absolute pressure. Condensable hydrocarbons may include amixture of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers greater than 4.“Non-condensable hydrocarbons” are hydrocarbons that do not condense at25° C. and one atmosphere absolute pressure. Non-condensablehydrocarbons may include hydrocarbons having carbon numbers less than 5.

“Coring” is a process that generally includes drilling a hole into aformation and removing a substantially solid mass of the formation fromthe hole.

“Coupled” means either a direct connection or an indirect connection(for example, one or more intervening connections) between one or moreobjects or components. The phrase “directly connected” means a directconnection between objects or components such that the objects orcomponents are connected directly to each other so that the objects orcomponents operate in a “point of use” manner.

“Cracking” refers to a process involving decomposition and molecularrecombination of organic compounds to produce a greater number ofmolecules than were initially present. In cracking, a series ofreactions take place accompanied by a transfer of hydrogen atoms betweenmolecules. For example, naphtha may undergo a thermal cracking reactionto form ethene and H₂.

“Curie temperature” is the temperature above which a ferromagneticmaterial loses all of its ferromagnetic properties. In addition tolosing all of its ferromagnetic properties above the Curie temperature,the ferromagnetic material begins to lose its ferromagnetic propertieswhen an increasing electrical current is passed through theferromagnetic material.

“Diad” refers to a group of two items (for example, heaters, wellbores,or other objects) coupled together.

“Diesel” refers to hydrocarbons with a boiling range distributionbetween 260° C. and 343° C. (500-650° F.) at 0.101 MPa. Diesel contentis determined by ASTM Method D2887.

“Enriched air” refers to air having a larger mole fraction of oxygenthan air in the atmosphere. Air is typically enriched to increasecombustion-supporting ability of the air.

A “fluid” may be, but is not limited to, a gas, a liquid, an emulsion, aslurry, and/or a stream of solid particles that has flow characteristicssimilar to liquid flow.

“Fluid injectivity” is the flow rate of fluids injected per unit ofpressure differential between a first location and a second location.

“Fluid pressure” is a pressure generated by a fluid in a formation.“Lithostatic pressure” (sometimes referred to as “lithostatic stress”)is a pressure in a formation equal to a weight per unit area of anoverlying rock mass. “Hydrostatic pressure” is a pressure in a formationexerted by a column of water.

A “formation” includes one or more hydrocarbon containing layers, one ormore non-hydrocarbon layers, an overburden, and/or an underburden.“Hydrocarbon layers” refer to layers in the formation that containhydrocarbons. The hydrocarbon layers may contain non-hydrocarbonmaterial and hydrocarbon material. The “overburden” and/or the“underburden” include one or more different types of impermeablematerials. For example, the overburden and/or underburden may includerock, shale, mudstone, or wet/tight carbonate. In some embodiments of insitu heat treatment processes, the overburden and/or the underburden mayinclude a hydrocarbon containing layer or hydrocarbon containing layersthat are relatively impermeable and are not subjected to temperaturesduring in situ heat treatment processing that result in significantcharacteristic changes of the hydrocarbon containing layers of theoverburden and/or the underburden. For example, the underburden maycontain shale or mudstone, but the underburden is not allowed to heat topyrolysis temperatures during the in situ heat treatment process. Insome cases, the overburden and/or the underburden may be somewhatpermeable.

“Formation fluids” refer to fluids present in a formation and mayinclude pyrolyzation fluid, synthesis gas, mobilized hydrocarbons, andwater (steam). Formation fluids may include hydrocarbon fluids as wellas non-hydrocarbon fluids. The term “mobilized fluid” refers to fluidsin a hydrocarbon containing formation that are able to flow as a resultof thermal treatment of the formation. “Produced fluids” refer to fluidsremoved from the formation.

“Freezing point” of a hydrocarbon liquid refers to the temperature belowwhich solid hydrocarbon crystals may form in the liquid. Freezing pointis as determined by ASTM Method D5901.

“Heat flux” is a flow of energy per unit of area per unit of time (forexample, Watts/meter²).

A “heat source” is any system for providing heat to at least a portionof a formation substantially by conductive and/or radiative heattransfer. For example, a heat source may include electrically conductingmaterials and/or electric heaters such as an insulated conductor, anelongated member, and/or a conductor disposed in a conduit. A heatsource may also include systems that generate heat by burning a fuelexternal to or in a formation. The systems may be surface burners,downhole gas burners, flameless distributed combustors, and naturaldistributed combustors. In some embodiments, heat provided to orgenerated in one or more heat sources may be supplied by other sourcesof energy. The other sources of energy may directly heat a formation, orthe energy may be applied to a transfer medium that directly orindirectly heats the formation. It is to be understood that one or moreheat sources that are applying heat to a formation may use differentsources of energy. Thus, for example, for a given formation some heatsources may supply heat from electrically conducting materials, electricresistance heaters, some heat sources may provide heat from combustion,and some heat sources may provide heat from one or more other energysources (for example, chemical reactions, solar energy, wind energy,biomass, or other sources of renewable energy). A chemical reaction mayinclude an exothermic reaction (for example, an oxidation reaction). Aheat source may also include a electrically conducting material and/or aheater that provides heat to a zone proximate and/or surrounding aheating location such as a heater well.

A “heater” is any system or heat source for generating heat in a well ora near wellbore region. Heaters may be, but are not limited to, electricheaters, burners, combustors that react with material in or producedfrom a formation, and/or combinations thereof.

“Heavy hydrocarbons” are viscous hydrocarbon fluids. Heavy hydrocarbonsmay include highly viscous hydrocarbon fluids such as heavy oil, tar,and/or asphalt. Heavy hydrocarbons may include carbon and hydrogen, aswell as smaller concentrations of sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.Additional elements may also be present in heavy hydrocarbons in traceamounts. Heavy hydrocarbons may be classified by API gravity. Heavyhydrocarbons generally have an API gravity below about 20°. Heavy oil,for example, generally has an API gravity of about 10-20°, whereas targenerally has an API gravity below about 10°. The viscosity of heavyhydrocarbons is generally greater than about 100 centipoise at 15° C.Heavy hydrocarbons may include aromatics or other complex ringhydrocarbons.

Heavy hydrocarbons may be found in a relatively permeable formation. Therelatively permeable formation may include heavy hydrocarbons entrainedin, for example, sand or carbonate. “Relatively permeable” is defined,with respect to formations or portions thereof, as an averagepermeability of 10 millidarcy or more (for example, 10 or 100millidarcy). “Relatively low permeability” is defined, with respect toformations or portions thereof, as an average permeability of less thanabout 10 millidarcy. One darcy is equal to about 0.99 squaremicrometers. An impermeable layer generally has a permeability of lessthan about 0.1 millidarcy.

Certain types of formations that include heavy hydrocarbons may alsoinclude, but are not limited to, natural mineral waxes, or naturalasphaltites. “Natural mineral waxes” typically occur in substantiallytubular veins that may be several meters wide, several kilometers long,and hundreds of meters deep. “Natural asphaltites” include solidhydrocarbons of an aromatic composition and typically occur in largeveins. In situ recovery of hydrocarbons from formations such as naturalmineral waxes and natural asphaltites may include melting to form liquidhydrocarbons and/or solution mining of hydrocarbons from the formations.

“Hydrocarbons” are generally defined as molecules formed primarily bycarbon and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons may also include other elementssuch as, but not limited to, halogens, metallic elements, nitrogen,oxygen, and/or sulfur. Hydrocarbons may be, but are not limited to,kerogen, bitumen, pyrobitumen, oils, natural mineral waxes, andasphaltites. Hydrocarbons may be located in or adjacent to mineralmatrices in the earth. Matrices may include, but are not limited to,sedimentary rock, sands, silicilytes, carbonates, diatomites, and otherporous media. “Hydrocarbon fluids” are fluids that include hydrocarbons.Hydrocarbon fluids may include, entrain, or be entrained innon-hydrocarbon fluids such as hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide,carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, water, and ammonia.

An “in situ conversion process” refers to a process of heating ahydrocarbon containing formation from heat sources to raise thetemperature of at least a portion of the formation above a pyrolysistemperature so that pyrolyzation fluid is produced in the formation.

An “in situ heat treatment process” refers to a process of heating ahydrocarbon containing formation with heat sources to raise thetemperature of at least a portion of the formation above a temperaturethat results in mobilized fluid, visbreaking, and/or pyrolysis ofhydrocarbon containing material so that mobilized fluids, visbrokenfluids, and/or pyrolyzation fluids are produced in the formation.

“Insulated conductor” refers to any elongated material that is able toconduct electricity and that is covered, in whole or in part, by anelectrically insulating material.

“Karst” is a subsurface shaped by the dissolution of a soluble layer orlayers of bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite.The dissolution may be caused by meteoric or acidic water. The Grosmontformation in Alberta, Canada is an example of a karst (or “karsted”)carbonate formation.

“Kerogen” is a solid, insoluble hydrocarbon that has been converted bynatural degradation and that principally contains carbon, hydrogen,nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Coal and oil shale are typical examples ofmaterials that contain kerogen. “Bitumen” is a non-crystalline solid orviscous hydrocarbon material that is substantially soluble in carbondisulfide. “Oil” is a fluid containing a mixture of condensablehydrocarbons.

“Kerosene” refers to hydrocarbons with a boiling range distributionbetween 204° C. and 260° C. at 0.101 MPa. Kerosene content is determinedby ASTM Method D2887.

“Modulated direct current (DC)” refers to any substantiallynon-sinusoidal time-varying current that produces skin effectelectricity flow in a ferromagnetic conductor.

“Naphtha” refers to hydrocarbon components with a boiling rangedistribution between 38° C. and 200° C. at 0.101 MPa. Naphtha content isdetermined by ASTM Method D5307.

“Nitride” refers to a compound of nitrogen and one or more otherelements of the Periodic Table. Nitrides include, but are not limitedto, silicon nitride, boron nitride, or alumina nitride.

“Nitrogen compounds” refer to inorganic and organic compounds containingthe element nitrogen. Examples of nitrogen compounds include, but arenot limited to, ammonia and organonitrogen compounds. “Organonitrogencompounds” refer to hydrocarbons that contain at least one nitrogenatom. Non-limiting examples of organonitrogen compounds include, but arenot limited to, amines, alkyl amines, aromatic amines, alkyl amides,aromatic amides, carbozoles, hydrogenated carbazoles, indoles pyridines,pyrazoles, pyrroles, and oxazoles.

“Nitrogen compound content” refers to an amount of nitrogen in anorganic compound. Nitrogen content is as determined by ASTM MethodD5762.

“Octane Number” refers to a calculated numerical representation of theantiknock properties of a motor fuel compared to a standard referencefuel. A calculated octane number is determined by ASTM Method D6730.

“Olefins” are molecules that include unsaturated hydrocarbons having oneor more non-aromatic carbon-carbon double bonds.

“Olefin content” refers to an amount of non-aromatic olefins in a fluid.Olefin content for a produced fluid is determined by obtaining a portionof the produce fluid that has a boiling point of 246° C. and testing theportion using ASTM Method D1159 and reporting the result as a brominefactor in grams per 100 gram of portion. Olefin content is alsodetermined by the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP)olefin method and is reported in percent olefin as 1-decene equivalent.

“Orifices” refer to openings, such as openings in conduits, having awide variety of sizes and cross-sectional shapes including, but notlimited to, circles, ovals, squares, rectangles, triangles, slits, orother regular or irregular shapes.

“Oxygen containing compounds” refer to compounds containing the elementoxygen. Examples of compounds containing oxygen include, but are notlimited to, phenols, and/or carbon dioxide.

“P (peptization) value” or “P-value” refers to a numerical value, whichrepresents the flocculation tendency of asphaltenes in a formationfluid. P-value is determined by ASTM method D7060.

“Perforations” include openings, slits, apertures, or holes in a wall ofa conduit, tubular, pipe or other flow pathway that allow flow into orout of the conduit, tubular, pipe or other flow pathway.

“Periodic Table” refers to the Periodic Table as specified by theInternational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), November2003. In the scope of this application, weight of a metal from thePeriodic Table, weight of a compound of a metal from the Periodic Table,weight of an element from the Periodic Table, or weight of a compound ofan element from the Periodic Table is calculated as the weight of metalor the weight of element. For example, if 0.1 grams of MoO₃ is used pergram of catalyst, the calculated weight of the molybdenum metal in thecatalyst is 0.067 grams per gram of catalyst.

“Phase transformation temperature” of a ferromagnetic material refers toa temperature or a temperature range during which the material undergoesa phase change (for example, from ferrite to austenite) that decreasesthe magnetic permeability of the ferromagnetic material. The reductionin magnetic permeability is similar to reduction in magneticpermeability due to the magnetic transition of the ferromagneticmaterial at the Curie temperature.

“Physical stability” refers to the ability of a formation fluid to notexhibit phase separation or flocculation during transportation of thefluid. Physical stability is determined by ASTM Method D7060.

“Pyrolysis” is the breaking of chemical bonds due to the application ofheat. For example, pyrolysis may include transforming a compound intoone or more other substances by heat alone. Heat may be transferred to asection of the formation to cause pyrolysis.

“Pyrolyzation fluids” or “pyrolysis products” refers to fluid producedsubstantially during pyrolysis of hydrocarbons. Fluid produced bypyrolysis reactions may mix with other fluids in a formation. Themixture would be considered pyrolyzation fluid or pyrolyzation product.As used herein, “pyrolysis zone” refers to a volume of a formation (forexample, a relatively permeable formation such as a tar sands formation)that is reacted or reacting to form a pyrolyzation fluid.

“Residue” refers to hydrocarbons that have a boiling point above 537° C.(1000° F.).

“Rich layers” in a hydrocarbon containing formation are relatively thinlayers (typically about 0.2 m to about 0.5 m thick). Rich layersgenerally have a richness of about 0.150 L/kg or greater. Some richlayers have a richness of about 0.170 L/kg or greater, of about 0.190L/kg or greater, or of about 0.210 L/kg or greater. Lean layers of theformation have a richness of about 0.100 L/kg or less and are generallythicker than rich layers. The richness and locations of layers aredetermined, for example, by coring and subsequent Fischer assay of thecore, density or neutron logging, or other logging methods. Rich layersmay have a lower initial thermal conductivity than other layers of theformation. Typically, rich layers have a thermal conductivity 1.5 timesto 3 times lower than the thermal conductivity of lean layers. Inaddition, rich layers have a higher thermal expansion coefficient thanlean layers of the formation.

“Smart well technology” or “smart wellbore” refers to wells thatincorporate downhole measurement and/or control. For injection wells,smart well technology may allow for controlled injection of fluid intothe formation in desired zones. For production wells, smart welltechnology may allow for controlled production of formation fluid fromselected zones. Some wells may include smart well technology that allowsfor formation fluid production from selected zones and simultaneous orstaggered solution injection into other zones. Smart well technology mayinclude fiber optic systems and control valves in the wellbore. A smartwellbore used for an in situ heat treatment process may be WestbayMultilevel Well System MP55 available from Westbay Instruments Inc.(Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada).

“Subsidence” is a downward movement of a portion of a formation relativeto an initial elevation of the surface.

“Sulfur containing compounds” refer to inorganic and organic sulfurcompounds. Examples of inorganic sulfur compounds include, but are notlimited to, hydrogen sulfide and/or iron sulfides. Examples of organicsulfur compounds (organosulfur compounds) include, but are not limitedto, carbon disulfide, mercaptans, thiophenes, hydrogenatedbenzothiophenes, benzothiophenes, dibenzothiophenes, hydrogenateddibenzothiophenes or mixtures thereof.

“Sulfur compound content” refers to an amount of sulfur in an organiccompound in hydrocarbons. Sulfur content is as determined by ASTM MethodD4294. ASTM Method D4294 may be used to determine forms of sulfur in anoil shale sample. Forms of sulfur in an oil shale sample includes, butis not limited to, pyritic sulfur, sulfate sulfur, and organic sulfur.Total sulfur content in oil shale is determined by ASTM D4239.

“Superposition of heat” refers to providing heat from two or more heatsources to a selected section of a formation such that the temperatureof the formation at least at one location between the heat sources isinfluenced by the heat sources.

“Synthesis gas” is a mixture including hydrogen and carbon monoxide.Additional components of synthesis gas may include water, carbondioxide, nitrogen, methane, and other gases. Synthesis gas may begenerated by a variety of processes and feedstocks. Synthesis gas may beused for synthesizing a wide range of compounds.

“TAN” refers to a total acid number expressed as milligrams (“mg”) ofKOH per gram (“g”) of sample. TAN is as determined by ASTM Method D3242.

“Tar” is a viscous hydrocarbon that generally has a viscosity greaterthan about 10,000 centipoise at 15° C. The specific gravity of targenerally is greater than 1.000. Tar may have an API gravity less than10°.

A “tar sands formation” is a formation in which hydrocarbons arepredominantly present in the form of heavy hydrocarbons and/or tarentrained in a mineral grain framework or other host lithology (forexample, sand or carbonate). Examples of tar sands formations includeformations such as the Athabasca formation, the Grosmont formation, andthe Peace River formation, all three in Alberta, Canada; and the Fajaformation in the Orinoco belt in Venezuela.

“Temperature limited heater” generally refers to a heater that regulatesheat output (for example, reduces heat output) above a specifiedtemperature without the use of external controls such as temperaturecontrollers, power regulators, rectifiers, or other devices. Temperaturelimited heaters may be AC (alternating current) or modulated (forexample, “chopped”) DC (direct current) powered electrical resistanceheaters.

“Thermally conductive fluid” includes fluid that has a higher thermalconductivity than air at standard temperature and pressure (STP) (0° C.and 101.325 kPa).

“Thermal conductivity” is a property of a material that describes therate at which heat flows, in steady state, between two surfaces of thematerial for a given temperature difference between the two surfaces.

“Thermal fracture” refers to fractures created in a formation caused byexpansion or contraction of a formation and/or fluids in the formation,which is in turn caused by increasing/decreasing the temperature of theformation and/or fluids in the formation, and/or byincreasing/decreasing a pressure of fluids in the formation due toheating.

“Thermal oxidation stability” refers to thermal oxidation stability of aliquid. Thermal oxidation stability is as determined by ASTM MethodD3241.

“Thickness” of a layer refers to the thickness of a cross section of thelayer, wherein the cross section is normal to a face of the layer.

“Time-varying current” refers to electrical current that produces skineffect electricity flow in a ferromagnetic conductor and has a magnitudethat varies with time. Time-varying current includes both alternatingcurrent (AC) and modulated direct current (DC).

“Triad” refers to a group of three items (for example, heaters,wellbores, or other objects) coupled together.

“Turndown ratio” for the temperature limited heater in which current isapplied directly to the heater is the ratio of the highest AC ormodulated DC resistance below the Curie temperature to the lowestresistance above the Curie temperature for a given current. Turndownratio for an inductive heater is the ratio of the highest heat outputbelow the Curie temperature to the lowest heat output above the Curietemperature for a given current applied to the heater.

A “u-shaped wellbore” refers to a wellbore that extends from a firstopening in the formation, through at least a portion of the formation,and out through a second opening in the formation. In this context, thewellbore may be only roughly in the shape of a “v” or “u”, with theunderstanding that the “legs” of the “u” do not need to be parallel toeach other, or perpendicular to the “bottom” of the “u” for the wellboreto be considered “u-shaped”.

“Upgrade” refers to increasing the quality of hydrocarbons. For example,upgrading heavy hydrocarbons may result in an increase in the APIgravity of the heavy hydrocarbons.

“Visbreaking” refers to the untangling of molecules in fluid during heattreatment and/or to the breaking of large molecules into smallermolecules during heat treatment, which results in a reduction of theviscosity of the fluid.

“Viscosity” refers to kinematic viscosity at 40° C. unless otherwisespecified. Viscosity is as determined by ASTM Method D445.

“VGO” or “vacuum gas oil” refers to hydrocarbons with a boiling rangedistribution between 343° C. and 538° C. at 0.101 MPa. VGO content isdetermined by ASTM Method D5307.

A “vug” is a cavity, void or large pore in a rock that is commonly linedwith mineral precipitates.

“Wax” refers to a low melting organic mixture, or a compound of highmolecular weight that is a solid at lower temperatures and a liquid athigher temperatures, and when in solid form can form a barrier to water.Examples of waxes include animal waxes, vegetable waxes, mineral waxes,petroleum waxes, and synthetic waxes.

The term “wellbore” refers to a hole in a formation made by drilling orinsertion of a conduit into the formation. A wellbore may have asubstantially circular cross section, or another cross-sectional shape.As used herein, the terms “well” and “opening,” when referring to anopening in the formation may be used interchangeably with the term“wellbore.”

A formation may be treated in various ways to produce many differentproducts. Different stages or processes may be used to treat theformation during an in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments,one or more sections of the formation are solution mined to removesoluble minerals from the sections. Solution mining minerals may beperformed before, during, and/or after the in situ heat treatmentprocess. In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or moresections being solution mined may be maintained below about 120° C.

In some embodiments, one or more sections of the formation are heated toremove water from the sections and/or to remove methane and othervolatile hydrocarbons from the sections. In some embodiments, theaverage temperature may be raised from ambient temperature totemperatures below about 220° C. during removal of water and volatilehydrocarbons.

In some embodiments, one or more sections of the formation are heated totemperatures that allow for movement and/or visbreaking of hydrocarbonsin the formation. In some embodiments, the average temperature of one ormore sections of the formation are raised to mobilization temperaturesof hydrocarbons in the sections (for example, to temperatures rangingfrom 100° C. to 250° C., from 120° C. to 240° C., or from 150° C. to230° C.).

In some embodiments, one or more sections are heated to temperaturesthat allow for pyrolysis reactions in the formation. In someembodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections of theformation may be raised to pyrolysis temperatures of hydrocarbons in thesections (for example, temperatures ranging from 230° C. to 900° C.,from 240° C. to 400° C. or from 250° C. to 350° C.).

Heating the hydrocarbon containing formation with a plurality of heatsources may establish thermal gradients around the heat sources thatraise the temperature of hydrocarbons in the formation to desiredtemperatures at desired heating rates. The rate of temperature increasethrough the mobilization temperature range and/or the pyrolysistemperature range for desired products may affect the quality andquantity of the formation fluids produced from the hydrocarboncontaining formation. Slowly raising the temperature of the formationthrough the mobilization temperature range and/or pyrolysis temperaturerange may allow for the production of high quality, high API gravityhydrocarbons from the formation. Slowly raising the temperature of theformation through the mobilization temperature range and/or pyrolysistemperature range may allow for the removal of a large amount of thehydrocarbons present in the formation as hydrocarbon product.

In some in situ heat treatment embodiments, a portion of the formationis heated to a desired temperature instead of slowly heating thetemperature through a temperature range. In some embodiments, thedesired temperature is 300° C., 325° C., or 350° C. Other temperaturesmay be selected as the desired temperature.

Superposition of heat from heat sources allows the desired temperatureto be relatively quickly and efficiently established in the formation.Energy input into the formation from the heat sources may be adjusted tomaintain the temperature in the formation substantially at a desiredtemperature.

Mobilization and/or pyrolysis products may be produced from theformation through production wells. In some embodiments, the averagetemperature of one or more sections is raised to mobilizationtemperatures and hydrocarbons are produced from the production wells.The average temperature of one or more of the sections may be raised topyrolysis temperatures after production due to mobilization decreasesbelow a selected value. In some embodiments, the average temperature ofone or more sections may be raised to pyrolysis temperatures withoutsignificant production before reaching pyrolysis temperatures. Formationfluids including pyrolysis products may be produced through theproduction wells.

In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections maybe raised to temperatures sufficient to allow synthesis gas productionafter mobilization and/or pyrolysis. In some embodiments, hydrocarbonsmay be raised to temperatures sufficient to allow synthesis gasproduction without significant production before reaching thetemperatures sufficient to allow synthesis gas production. For example,synthesis gas may be produced in a temperature range from about 400° C.to about 1200° C., about 500° C. to about 1100° C., or about 550° C. toabout 1000° C. A synthesis gas generating fluid (for example, steamand/or water) may be introduced into the sections to generate synthesisgas. Synthesis gas may be produced from production wells.

Solution mining, removal of volatile hydrocarbons and water, mobilizinghydrocarbons, pyrolyzing hydrocarbons, generating synthesis gas, and/orother processes may be performed during the in situ heat treatmentprocess. In some embodiments, some processes may be performed after thein situ heat treatment process. Such processes may include, but are notlimited to, recovering heat from treated sections, storing fluids (forexample, water and/or hydrocarbons) in previously treated sections,and/or sequestering carbon dioxide in previously treated sections.

FIG. 1 depicts a schematic view of an embodiment of a portion of the insitu heat treatment system for treating the hydrocarbon containingformation. The in situ heat treatment system may include barrier wells200. Barrier wells are used to form a barrier around a treatment area.The barrier inhibits fluid flow into and/or out of the treatment area.Barrier wells include, but are not limited to, dewatering wells, vacuumwells, capture wells, injection wells, grout wells, freeze wells, orcombinations thereof. In some embodiments, barrier wells 200 aredewatering wells. Dewatering wells may remove liquid water and/orinhibit liquid water from entering a portion of the formation to beheated, or to the formation being heated. In the embodiment depicted inFIG. 1, the barrier wells 200 are shown extending only along one side ofheat sources 202, but the barrier wells typically encircle all heatsources 202 used, or to be used, to heat a treatment area of theformation.

Heat sources 202 are placed in at least a portion of the formation. Heatsources 202 may include heaters such as insulated conductors,conductor-in-conduit heaters, surface burners, flameless distributedcombustors, and/or natural distributed combustors. Heat sources 202 mayalso include other types of heaters. Heat sources 202 provide heat to atleast a portion of the formation to heat hydrocarbons in the formation.Energy may be supplied to heat sources 202 through supply lines 204.Supply lines 204 may be structurally different depending on the type ofheat source or heat sources used to heat the formation. Supply lines 204for heat sources may transmit electricity for electric heaters, maytransport fuel for combustors, or may transport heat exchange fluid thatis circulated in the formation. In some embodiments, electricity for anin situ heat treatment process may be provided by a nuclear power plantor nuclear power plants. The use of nuclear power may allow forreduction or elimination of carbon dioxide emissions from the in situheat treatment process.

When the formation is heated, the heat input into the formation maycause expansion of the formation and geomechanical motion. The heatsources may be turned on before, at the same time, or during adewatering process. Computer simulations may model formation response toheating. The computer simulations may be used to develop a pattern andtime sequence for activating heat sources in the formation so thatgeomechanical motion of the formation does not adversely affect thefunctionality of heat sources, production wells, and other equipment inthe formation.

Heating the formation may cause an increase in permeability and/orporosity of the formation. Increases in permeability and/or porosity mayresult from a reduction of mass in the formation due to vaporization andremoval of water, removal of hydrocarbons, and/or creation of fractures.Fluid may flow more easily in the heated portion of the formationbecause of the increased permeability and/or porosity of the formation.Fluid in the heated portion of the formation may move a considerabledistance through the formation because of the increased permeabilityand/or porosity. The considerable distance may be over 1000 m dependingon various factors, such as permeability of the formation, properties ofthe fluid, temperature of the formation, and pressure gradient allowingmovement of the fluid. The ability of fluid to travel considerabledistance in the formation allows production wells 206 to be spacedrelatively far apart in the formation.

Production wells 206 are used to remove formation fluid from theformation. In some embodiments, production well 206 includes a heatsource. The heat source in the production well may heat one or moreportions of the formation at or near the production well. In some insitu heat treatment process embodiments, the amount of heat supplied tothe formation from the production well per meter of the production wellis less than the amount of heat applied to the formation from a heatsource that heats the formation per meter of the heat source. Heatapplied to the formation from the production well may increase formationpermeability adjacent to the production well by vaporizing and removingliquid phase fluid adjacent to the production well and/or by increasingthe permeability of the formation adjacent to the production well byformation of macro and/or micro fractures.

More than one heat source may be positioned in the production well. Aheat source in a lower portion of the production well may be turned offwhen superposition of heat from adjacent heat sources heats theformation sufficiently to counteract benefits provided by heating theformation with the production well. In some embodiments, the heat sourcein an upper portion of the production well may remain on after the heatsource in the lower portion of the production well is deactivated. Theheat source in the upper portion of the well may inhibit condensationand reflux of formation fluid.

In some embodiments, the heat source in production well 206 allows forvapor phase removal of formation fluids from the formation. Providingheating at or through the production well may: (1) inhibit condensationand/or refluxing of production fluid when such production fluid ismoving in the production well proximate the overburden, (2) increaseheat input into the formation, (3) increase production rate from theproduction well as compared to a production well without a heat source,(4) inhibit condensation of high carbon number compounds (C₆hydrocarbons and above) in the production well, and/or (5) increaseformation permeability at or proximate the production well.

Subsurface pressure in the formation may correspond to the fluidpressure generated in the formation. As temperatures in the heatedportion of the formation increase, the pressure in the heated portionmay increase as a result of thermal expansion of in situ fluids,increased fluid generation and vaporization of water. Controlling therate of fluid removal from the formation may allow for control ofpressure in the formation. Pressure in the formation may be determinedat a number of different locations, such as near or at production wells,near or at heat sources, near or at monitor wells.

In some hydrocarbon containing formations, production of hydrocarbonsfrom the formation is inhibited until at least some hydrocarbons in theformation have been mobilized and/or pyrolyzed. Formation fluid may beproduced from the formation when the formation fluid is of a selectedquality. In some embodiments, the selected quality includes an APIgravity of at least about 20°, 30°, or 40°. Inhibiting production untilat least some hydrocarbons are mobilized and/or pyrolyzed may increaseconversion of heavy hydrocarbons to light hydrocarbons Inhibitinginitial production may minimize the production of heavy hydrocarbonsfrom the formation. Production of substantial amounts of heavyhydrocarbons may require expensive equipment and/or reduce the life ofproduction equipment.

In some hydrocarbon containing formations, hydrocarbons in the formationmay be heated to mobilization and/or pyrolysis temperatures beforesubstantial permeability has been generated in the heated portion of theformation. An initial lack of permeability may inhibit the transport ofgenerated fluids to production wells 206. During initial heating, fluidpressure in the formation may increase proximate heat sources 202. Theincreased fluid pressure may be released, monitored, altered, and/orcontrolled through one or more heat sources 202. For example, selectedheat sources 202 or separate pressure relief wells may include pressurerelief valves that allow for removal of some fluid from the formation.

In some embodiments, pressure generated by expansion of mobilizedfluids, pyrolysis fluids or other fluids generated in the formation maybe allowed to increase although an open path to production wells 206 orany other pressure sink may not yet exist in the formation. The fluidpressure may be allowed to increase towards a lithostatic pressure.Fractures in the hydrocarbon containing formation may form when thefluid approaches the lithostatic pressure. For example, fractures mayform from heat sources 202 to production wells 206 in the heated portionof the formation. The generation of fractures in the heated portion mayrelieve some of the pressure in the portion. Pressure in the formationmay have to be maintained below a selected pressure to inhibit unwantedproduction, fracturing of the overburden or underburden, and/or cokingof hydrocarbons in the formation.

After mobilization and/or pyrolysis temperatures are reached andproduction from the formation is allowed, pressure in the formation maybe varied to alter and/or control a composition of produced formationfluid, to control a percentage of condensable fluid as compared tonon-condensable fluid in the formation fluid, and/or to control an APIgravity of formation fluid being produced. For example, decreasingpressure may result in production of a larger condensable fluidcomponent. The condensable fluid component may contain a largerpercentage of olefins.

In some in situ heat treatment process embodiments, pressure in theformation may be maintained high enough to promote production offormation fluid with an API gravity of greater than 20°. Maintainingincreased pressure in the formation may inhibit formation subsidenceduring in situ heat treatment. Maintaining increased pressure may reduceor eliminate the need to compress formation fluids at the surface totransport the fluids in collection conduits to treatment facilities.

Maintaining increased pressure in a heated portion of the formation maysurprisingly allow for production of large quantities of hydrocarbons ofincreased quality and of relatively low molecular weight. Pressure maybe maintained so that formation fluid produced has a minimal amount ofcompounds above a selected carbon number. The selected carbon number maybe at most 25, at most 20, at most 12, or at most 8. Some high carbonnumber compounds may be entrained in vapor in the formation and may beremoved from the formation with the vapor. Maintaining increasedpressure in the formation may inhibit entrainment of high carbon numbercompounds and/or multi-ring hydrocarbon compounds in the vapor. Highcarbon number compounds and/or multi-ring hydrocarbon compounds mayremain in a liquid phase in the formation for significant time periods.The significant time periods may provide sufficient time for thecompounds to pyrolyze to form lower carbon number compounds.

Generation of relatively low molecular weight hydrocarbons is believedto be due, in part, to autogenous generation and reaction of hydrogen ina portion of the hydrocarbon containing formation. For example,maintaining an increased pressure may force hydrogen generated duringpyrolysis into the liquid phase within the formation. Heating theportion to a temperature in a pyrolysis temperature range may pyrolyzehydrocarbons in the formation to generate liquid phase pyrolyzationfluids. The generated liquid phase pyrolyzation fluids components mayinclude double bonds and/or radicals. Hydrogen (H₂) in the liquid phasemay reduce double bonds of the generated pyrolyzation fluids, therebyreducing a potential for polymerization or formation of long chaincompounds from the generated pyrolyzation fluids. In addition, H₂ mayalso neutralize radicals in the generated pyrolyzation fluids. H₂ in theliquid phase may inhibit the generated pyrolyzation fluids from reactingwith each other and/or with other compounds in the formation.

Formation fluid produced from production wells 206 may be transportedthrough collection piping 208 to treatment facilities 210. Formationfluids may also be produced from heat sources 202. For example, fluidmay be produced from heat sources 202 to control pressure in theformation adjacent to the heat sources. Fluid produced from heat sources202 may be transported through tubing or piping to collection piping 208or the produced fluid may be transported through tubing or pipingdirectly to treatment facilities 210. Treatment facilities 210 mayinclude separation units, reaction units, upgrading units, fuel cells,turbines, storage vessels, and/or other systems and units for processingproduced formation fluids. The treatment facilities may formtransportation fuel from at least a portion of the hydrocarbons producedfrom the formation. In some embodiments, the transportation fuel may bejet fuel, such as JP-8.

Formation fluid may be hot when produced from the formation through theproduction wells. Hot formation fluid may be produced during solutionmining processes and/or during in situ heat treatment processes. In someembodiments, electricity may be generated using the heat of the fluidproduced from the formation. Also, heat recovered from the formationafter the in situ process may be used to generate electricity. Thegenerated electricity may be used to supply power to the in situ heattreatment process. For example, the electricity may be used to powerheaters, or to power a refrigeration system for forming or maintaining alow temperature barrier. Electricity may be generated using a Kalinacycle, Rankine cycle or other thermodynamic cycle. In some embodiments,the working fluid for the cycle used to generate electricity is aquaammonia.

Oil shale formations may have a number of properties that depend on acomposition of the hydrocarbons within the formation. Such propertiesmay affect the composition and amount of products that are produced fromthe oil shale formation during in situ conversion process. Properties ofan oil shale formation may be used to determine if and/or how the oilshale formation is to be subjected to in situ heat treatment process.

Kerogen is composed of organic matter that has been transformed due to amaturation process. The maturation process for kerogen may include twostages: a biochemical stage and a geochemical stage. The biochemicalstage typically involves degradation of organic material by aerobicand/or anaerobic organisms. The geochemical stage typically involvesconversion of organic matter due to temperature changes and significantpressures. During maturation, oil and gas may be produced as the organicmatter of the kerogen is transformed. Kerogen may be classified intofour distinct groups: Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV.Classification of kerogen type may depend upon precursor materials ofthe kerogen. The precursor materials transform over time into macerals.Macerals are microscopic structures that have different structures andproperties depending on the precursor materials from which they arederived.

Type I kerogen may be classified as an alginite, since it is developedprimarily from algal bodies. Type I kerogen may result from depositsmade in lacustrine environments. Type II kerogen may develop fromorganic matter that was deposited in marine environments. Type IIIkerogen may generally include vitrinite macerals. Vitrinite is derivedfrom cell walls and/or woody tissues (for example, stems, branches,leaves, and roots of plants). Type III kerogen may be present in mosthumic coals. Type III kerogen may develop from organic matter that wasdeposited in swamps. Type IV kerogen includes the inertinite maceralgroup. The inertinite maceral group is composed of plant material suchas leaves, bark, and stems that have undergone oxidation during theearly peat stages of burial diagenesis. Inertinite maceral is chemicallysimilar to vitrinite, but has a high carbon and low hydrogen content.

Vitrinite reflectance may be used to assess the quality of fluidsproduced from certain kerogen containing formations. Formations thatinclude kerogen may be assessed/selected for treatment based on avitrinite reflectance of the kerogen. Vitrinite reflectance is oftenrelated to a hydrogen to carbon atomic ratio of a kerogen and an oxygento carbon atomic ratio of the kerogen. Vitrinite reflectance of ahydrocarbon containing formation may indicate which fluids areproducible from a formation upon heating. For example, a vitrinitereflectance of approximately 0.5% to approximately 1.5% may indicatethat the kerogen will produce a large quantity of condensable fluids. Avitrinite reflectance of approximately 1.5% to 3.0% may indicate akerogen having a H/C molar ratio between about 0.25 to about 0.9.Heating of a hydrocarbon formation having a vitrinite reflectance ofapproximately 1.5% to 3.0% may produce a significant amount (forexample, a majority) of methane and hydrogen.

In some embodiments, hydrocarbon formations containing Type I kerogenhave vitrinite reflectance less than 0.5% (for example, between 0.4% and0.5%). Type I kerogen having a vitrinite reflectance less than 0.5% maycontain a significant amount of amorphous organic matter. In someembodiments, kerogen having a vitrinite reflectance less than 0.5% mayhave relatively high total sulfur content (for example, a total sulfurcontent between 1.5% and about 2.0% by weight). In certain embodiments,a majority of the total sulfur content in the kerogen is organic sulfurcompounds (for example, an organic sulfur content in the kerogen between1.3% to 1.7% by weight). In some embodiments, hydrocarbon formationshaving a vitrinite reflectance less than 0.5% may contain a significantamount of calcite and a relatively low amount of dolomite.

In certain embodiments, Type I kerogen formations may have a mineralcontent that includes about 85% to 90% by weight calcite (calciumcarbonate), about 0.5% to 1.5% by weight dolomite, about 5% to 15% byweight fluorapatite, about 5% to 15% by weight quartz, less than 0.5% byweight clays and/or less than 0.5% by weight iron sulfides (pyrite).Such oil shale formations may have a porosity ranging from about 5% toabout 7% and/or a bulk density from about 1.5 to about 2.5 g/cc. Oilshale formations containing primarily calcite may have an organic sulfurcontent ranging from about 1% to about 2% by weight and an H/C atomicratio of about 1.4.

In some embodiments, hydrocarbon formations having a vitrinitereflectance less than 0.5% and/or a relatively high sulfur content maybe treated using the in situ heat treatment process or an in situconversion process at lower temperatures (for example, about 15° C.lower) relative to treating Type I kerogen having vitrinite reflectanceof greater than 0.5% and/or an organic sulfur content of less than 1% byweight and/or Type II-IV kerogens using an in situ conversion process orretorting process. The ability to treat a hydrocarbon formation at lowertemperatures may result in energy reductions and increased production ofliquid hydrocarbons from the hydrocarbon formation.

FIG. 2 depicts a schematic representation of a system for treatingformation fluid produced from the in situ heat treatment process.Formation fluid 212 may enter fluid separation unit 214 and is separatedinto in situ heat treatment process liquid stream 216, in situ heattreatment process gas 218 and aqueous stream 220. In some embodiments,liquid stream 216 is transported to other processing units and/orfacilities.

In some embodiments, fluid separation unit 214 includes a quench zone.As produced formation fluid enters the quench zone, quenching fluid suchas water, nonpotable water, hydrocarbon diluent, and/or other componentsmay be added to the formation fluid to quench and/or cool the formationfluid to a temperature suitable for handling in downstream processingequipment. Quenching the formation fluid may inhibit formation ofcompounds that contribute to physical and/or chemical instability of thefluid (for example, inhibit formation of compounds that may precipitatefrom solution, contribute to corrosion, and/or fouling of downstreamequipment and/or piping). The quenching fluid may be introduced into theformation fluid as a spray and/or a liquid stream. In some embodiments,the formation fluid is introduced into the quenching fluid. In someembodiments, the formation fluid is cooled by passing the fluid througha heat exchanger to remove some heat from the formation fluid. Thequench fluid may be added to the cooled formation fluid when thetemperature of the formation fluid is near or at the dew point of thequench fluid. Quenching the formation fluid near or at the dew point ofthe quench fluid may enhance solubilization of salts that may causechemical and/or physical instability of the quenched fluid (for example,ammonium salts). In some embodiments, an amount of water used in thequench is minimal so that salts of inorganic compounds and/or othercomponents do not separate from the mixture. In separation unit 214, atleast a portion of the quench fluid may be separated from the quenchmixture and recycled to the quench zone with a minimal amount oftreatment. Heat produced from the quench may be captured and used inother facilities. In some embodiments, vapor may be produced during thequench. The produced vapor may be sent to gas separation unit 222 and/orsent to other facilities for processing.

In situ heat treatment process gas 218 may enter gas separation unit 222to separate gas hydrocarbon stream 224 from the in situ heat treatmentprocess gas. Gas separation unit 222 may include a physical treatmentsystem and/or a chemical treatment system. The physical treatment systemmay include, but is not limited to, a membrane unit, a pressure swingadsorption unit, a liquid absorption unit, and/or a cryogenic unit. Thechemical treatment system may include units that use amines (forexample, diethanolamine or di-isopropanolamine), zinc oxide, sulfolane,water, or mixtures thereof in the treatment process. In someembodiments, gas separation unit 222 uses a Sulfinol gas treatmentprocess for removal of sulfur compounds. Carbon dioxide may be removedusing Catacarb® (Catacarb, Overland Park, Kans., U.S.A.) and/or Benfield(UOP, Des Plaines, Ill., U.S.A.) gas treatment processes. In someembodiments, the gas separation unit is a rectified adsorption and highpressure fractionation unit. In some embodiments, in situ heat treatmentprocess gas is treated to remove at least 50%, at least 60%, at least70%, at least 80% or at least 90% by volume of ammonia present in thegas stream.

In gas separation unit 222, treatment of in situ heat conversiontreatment gas 218 removes sulfur compounds, carbon dioxide, and/orhydrogen to produce gas hydrocarbon stream 224. In some embodiments, insitu heat treatment process gas 218 includes about 20 vol % hydrogen,about 30% methane, about 12% carbon dioxide, about 14 vol % C₂hydrocarbons, about 5 vol % hydrogen sulfide, about 10 vol % C₃hydrocarbons, about 7 vol % C₄ hydrocarbons, about 2 vol % C₅hydrocarbons, and mixtures thereof, with the balance being heavierhydrocarbons, water, ammonia, COS, thiols and thiophenes. Gashydrocarbon stream 224 includes hydrocarbons having a carbon number ofat least 3. In some embodiments, in situ treatment process gas 218 iscryogenically treated as described in U.S. Published Patent ApplicationNo. 2009-0071652 to Vinegar et al.

In some embodiments, the process gas stream includesmicroscopic/molecular species of mercury and/or compounds of mercury.The process gas stream may include dissolved, entrained or solidparticulates of metallic mercury, ionic mercury, organometalliccompounds of mercury (for example, alkyl mercury), or inorganiccompounds of mercury (for example, mercury sulfide). The process gasstream may be processed through a membrane filtration system and/or asdescribed in International Application No. WO 2008/116864 to DenBoestert et al., which is incorporated herein by reference, to removemercury or mercury compounds from the process gas stream describedbelow. After filtration, the filtered process gas stream (permeate) mayhave a mercury content of 100 ppbw (parts per billion by weight) orless, 25 ppbw or less, 5 ppbw or less, 2 ppbw or less, or 1 ppbw orless.

In situ heat treatment process liquid stream 216 enters liquidseparation unit 226. In some embodiments, liquid separation unit 226 isnot necessary. In liquid separation unit 226, separation of in situ heattreatment process liquid stream 216 produces gas hydrocarbon stream 228and salty process liquid stream 230. Gas hydrocarbon stream 228 mayinclude hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at most 5. A portion ofgas hydrocarbon stream 228 may be combined with gas hydrocarbon stream224.

Salty process liquid stream 230 may be processed through desalting unit232 to form liquid hydrocarbon stream 234. Desalting unit 232 removesmineral salts and/or water from salty process liquid stream 230 usingknown desalting and water removal methods. In certain embodiments,desalting unit 232 is positioned ahead of liquid separation unit 226.

In some embodiments, an additional liquid hydrocarbon stream may beseparated from salty process liquid stream 230 in liquid separation unit226. The additional liquid hydrocarbon stream may be further processedto filtered using a membrane filtration system and/or other filtrationknown systems to separate asphaltenes and/or to prepare an aromaticenriched diluent stream. Examples of filtration systems to removeasphaltenes and/or make enriched dilute are described in U.S. PatentApplication Publication Nos. 2009-0071652 to Vinegar et al.;2009-0189617 to Burns et al.; and 2010-0071903 to Prince-Wright et al.

Liquid hydrocarbon stream 234 includes, but is not limited to,hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 5 and/or hydrocarboncontaining heteroatoms (for example, hydrocarbons containing nitrogen,oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus). Liquid hydrocarbon stream 234 mayinclude at least 0.001 g, at least 0.005 g, or at least 0.01 g ofhydrocarbons with a boiling range distribution between about 95° C. andabout 200° C. at 0.101 MPa; at least 0.01 g, at least 0.005 g, or atleast 0.001 g of hydrocarbons with a boiling range distribution betweenabout 200° C. and about 300° C. at 0.101 MPa; at least 0.001 g, at least0.005 g, or at least 0.01 g of hydrocarbons with a boiling rangedistribution between about 300° C. and about 400° C. at 0.101 MPa; andat least 0.001 g, at least 0.005 g, or at least 0.01 g of hydrocarbonswith a boiling range distribution between 400° C. and 650° C. at 0.101MPa. In some embodiments, liquid hydrocarbon stream 234 contains at most10% by weight water, at most 5% by weight water, at most 1% by weightwater, or at most 0.1% by weight water.

Liquid hydrocarbon stream 234 includes, but is not limited to,hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 5 and/or hydrocarboncontaining heteroatoms (for example, hydrocarbons containing nitrogen,oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus). Liquid hydrocarbon stream 234 mayinclude at least 0.001 g, at least 0.005 g, or at least 0.01 g ofhydrocarbons with a boiling range distribution between about 95° C. andabout 200° C. at 0.101 MPa; at least 0.01 g, at least 0.005 g, or atleast 0.001 g of hydrocarbons with a boiling range distribution betweenabout 200° C. and about 300° C. at 0.101 MPa; at least 0.001 g, at least0.005 g, or at least 0.01 g of hydrocarbons with a boiling rangedistribution between about 300° C. and about 400° C. at 0.101 MPa; andat least 0.001 g, at least 0.005 g, or at least 0.01 g of hydrocarbonswith a boiling range distribution between 400° C. and 650° C. at 0.101MPa. In some embodiments, liquid hydrocarbon stream 234 contains at most10% by weight water, at most 5% by weight water, at most 1% by weightwater, or at most 0.1% by weight water.

In some embodiments, liquid hydrocarbon stream 234 may include smallamounts of dissolved, entrained or solid particulates of metals or metalcompounds that may not be removed through conventional filtrationmethods. Metals and/or metal compounds which may be present in theliquid hydrocarbon stream include iron, copper, mercury, calcium,sodium; silicon or compounds thereof. A total amount of metals and/ormetal compounds in the liquid hydrocarbon steam may range from 100 ppbwto about 1000 ppbw.

As properties of the liquid hydrocarbon stream 234 are changed duringprocessing (for example, TAN, asphaltenes, P-value, olefin content,mobilized fluids content, visbroken fluids content, pyrolyzed fluidscontent, or combinations thereof), the asphaltenes and other componentsmay become less soluble in the liquid hydrocarbon stream. In someinstances, components in the produced fluids and/or components in theseparated hydrocarbons may form two phases and/or become insoluble.Formation of two phases, through flocculation of asphaltenes, change inconcentration of components in the produced fluids, change inconcentration of components in separated hydrocarbons, and/orprecipitation of components may cause processing problems (for example,plugging) and/or result in hydrocarbons that do not meet pipeline,transportation, and/or refining specifications. In some embodiments,further treatment of the produced fluids and/or separated hydrocarbonsis necessary to produce products with desired properties.

During processing, the P-value of the separated hydrocarbons may bemonitored and the stability of the produced fluids and/or separatedhydrocarbons may be assessed. Typically, a P-value that is at most 1.0indicates that flocculation of asphaltenes from the separatedhydrocarbons may occur. If the P-value is initially at least 1.0 andsuch P-value increases or is relatively stable during heating, then thisindicates that the separated hydrocarbons are relatively stable.

Liquid hydrocarbon stream 234 may be further processed usingconventional filtration, hydroprocessing methods and/or methodsdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,584,789 to Mo et al. and/or U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. 2010-0071903 to Prince-Wright et al. toproduce commercial products and/or products to be used in an in situheat treatment process. In some embodiments, the products produced fromliquid hydrocarbon stream 234 are suitable for use as transportationfuel. In some embodiments, liquid hydrocarbon stream 234 may be treatedto at least partially remove asphaltenes and/or other compounds that maycontribute to instability. Removal of the asphaltenes and/or othercompounds that may contribute to instability may inhibit plugging indownstream processing units. Removal of the asphaltenes and/or othercompounds that may contribute to instability may enhance processing unitefficiencies and/or prevent plugging of transportation pipelines.

In some embodiments, liquid hydrocarbon streams produced from aformation may include organonitrogen compounds. Organonitrogen compoundsare known to poison precious metal catalyst used for treatinghydrocarbon streams to make products suitable for commercial sale and/ortransportation (for example, transportation fuels and/or lubricatingoils). The formation fluids may include nitrogen levels such thatprocess facilities may deem the fluid unsuitable for processing.

Removal of organonitrogen compounds from the liquid hydrocarbon streamprior to catalytic treatment of the liquid hydrocarbon streams isdesirable. Organonitrogen compounds may be removed through catalytichydrogenation methods and/or solvent extraction methods. Catalytichydrogenation methods require high temperatures and catalyst that arenot subject to poisoning by nitrogen compounds. The catalytichydrogenation methods may require high temperatures and/or pressures inaddition to requiring high amounts of hydrogen. Hydrogen may not bereadily available and/or may need to be manufactured. Since hydrogen hasto be supplied for denitrogenation, the use of high amounts of hydrogenmay increase the overall cost for removal of nitrogen from the fluidssuch that process facilities deem the fluids unsuitable.

Liquid hydrocarbon streams may be extracted with aqueous acid streams toproduce a hydrocarbon stream having a minimal amount of organonitrogencompounds and an aqueous stream. The aqueous stream may containorganonitrogen salts. Further processing of the aqueous stream (forexample, distillation and/or treatment with base) may result productionof a stream rich in organonitrogen compounds. The stream rich inorganonitrogen stream may be used as diluent for heavy oil and/or sentto other processing units. U.S. Pat. No. 4,287,051 to Curtin describes amethod of denitrogenating viscous oils containing a relatively highcontent of nitrogenous compounds by extracting nitrogenous compoundsfrom a first portion of a viscous oil with an operable acid solvent toproduce a raffinate oil having a relatively low concentration ofnitrogenous compounds and a extract stream having a high concentrationof nitrogenous compounds. The acid solvent is recovered from the extractstream, simultaneously producing a small volume stream of low viscosityoil containing a high concentration of the nitrogenous compounds andreferred to as a high nitrogen content oil. The low viscosity highnitrogen content oil is admixed with the remaining first high viscositybottoms to provide a pumpable mixed stream. Although, aqueous extractionand/or hydrogenation of hydrocarbon streams may produce liquidhydrocarbon streams having a low organonitrogen content, more efficientprocesses and less costly processes to treat the high nitrogen contentoil are desirable. In addition, processes that allow for recycle ofwaste or low value streams are desirable.

In some embodiments, liquid stream 234 includes organonitrogencompounds. In some embodiments, liquid stream 234 includes from about0.1% to greater than 2% by weight nitrogen compounds. In someembodiments, liquid stream 234 includes from about 0.2% to about 1.5% orfrom 0.5% to about 1% by weight nitrogen compounds. Organonitrogencompounds, for example, alkyl amines, aromatic amines, alkyl amides,aromatic amides, pyridines, pyrazoles, and oxazoles may poison preciousmetal catalyst used for treating hydrocarbon streams to make productssuitable for commercial sale and/or transportation (for example,transportation fuels and/or lubricating oils). Removal of organonitrogencompounds from the liquid hydrocarbon stream prior to catalytictreatment of the liquid hydrocarbon stream may enhance catalyst life ofdownstream processes. Removal of organonitrogen compounds may allow lesssevere conditions be used in downstream applications.

As shown in FIG. 2, a portion of liquid stream 234 is treated with anaqueous acid solution in separation unit 236 to form an aqueous stream238 and non-aqueous stream 240. In some embodiments, a volume ratio ofliquid stream to aqueous acid solution ranges from 0.2 to 0.3 or isabout 0.25. Treatment of liquid stream 234 with aqueous acid may beconducted at a temperature ranging from about 90° C. to about 150° C. ata pressures ranging from about 0.3 MPa to about 0.4 MPa.

Non-aqueous stream 240 may include non-organonitrogen hydrocarbons. Insome embodiments, non-organonitrogen hydrocarbons include compounds thatcontain only hydrogen and carbon. In some embodiments, non-aqueousstream 240 contains at most 0.01% by weight organonitrogen compounds. Insome embodiments, non-aqueous stream 240 contains from about 200 ppmw toabout 1000 ppmw, from about 300 ppmw to about 800 ppmw, or from about500 ppmw to about 700 ppm organonitrogen compounds. Non-aqueous stream240 may enter one or more hydroprocessing units and/or other processingunits positioned after separation unit 236 for further processing tomake products suitable for transportation and/or sale. In someembodiments, further processing of non-aqueous stream 240 is notnecessary.

Aqueous acid solution 238 includes water and acids suitable to complexwith nitrogen compounds (for example, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid,acetic acid, formic acid, other suitable acidic compounds or mixturesthereof). Aqueous stream 238 includes salts of the organonitrogencompounds and acid and water. At least a portion of aqueous stream 238is sent to separation unit 242. In separation unit 242, aqueous stream238 is separated (for example, distilled) to form aqueous acid stream244 and concentrated organonitrogen stream 246. Concentratedorganonitrogen stream 246 includes organonitrogen compounds, water,and/or acid. Separated aqueous stream 244 may be introduced intoseparation unit 236. In some embodiments, separated aqueous stream 244is combined with another aqueous acid solution prior to entering theseparation unit.

In some embodiments, at least a portion of aqueous stream 238 and/orconcentrated organonitrogen stream 246 are introduced in a hydrocarbonportion or layer of subsurface formation that has been at leastpartially treated by an in situ heat treatment process. Aqueous stream238 and/or concentrated organonitrogen stream 246 may be heated prior toinjection in the formation. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon portionor layer In some embodiments, at least a portion of aqueous stream 238and/or concentrated organonitrogen stream 246 are introduced in ahydrocarbon portion or layer of subsurface formation that has been atleast partially treated by an in situ heat treatment process. Aqueousstream 238 and/or concentrated organonitrogen stream 246 may be heatedprior to injection in the formation. In some embodiments, thehydrocarbon portion or layer includes a shale and/or nahcolite (forexample, a nahcolite zone in the Piceance Basin). In some embodiments,the aqueous stream 238 and/or concentrated organonitrogen stream 246 isused a part of the water source for solution mining nahcolite from theformation. In some embodiments, the aqueous stream 238 and/orconcentrated organonitrogen stream 246 is introduced in a portion of aformation that contains nahcolite after at least a portion of thenahcolite has been removed. In some embodiments, the aqueous stream 238and/or concentrated organonitrogen stream 246 is introduced in a portionof a formation that contains nahcolite after at least a portion of thenahcolite has been removed and/or the portion has been at leastpartially treated using an in situ heat treatment process. Thehydrocarbon layer may be heated to temperatures above 200° C. prior tointroduction of the aqueous stream. Addition of streams that includeorganonitrogen compounds may increase the permeability of thehydrocarbon layer (for example, increase the permeability of the oilshale layer), thus flow of formation fluids from the heated hydrocarbonlayer to other sections of the formation may be improved. In the heatedformation, the organonitrogen compounds may form non-nitrogen containinghydrocarbons, amines, and/or ammonia and at least some of suchnon-nitrogen containing hydrocarbons, amines and/or ammonia may beproduced. In some embodiments, at least some of the acid used in theextraction process is produced. Treatment of the liquid stream asdescribed to produce a stream suitable for further processing andintroduction of the organonitrogen stream in a portion of the formationprovides an improved, economical process to convert streams deemedunsuitable for processing to be converted to commercial products whileoverall waste is reduced.

In some embodiments, streams 234, 246, 240 processed as described inFIG. 2 enter a hydrotreating unit and are contacted with hydrogen in thepresence of one or more catalysts to produce hydrotreated liquidstreams. Hydrotreating to change one or more desired properties of thecrude feed to meet transportation and/or refinery specifications usingknown hydrodemetallation, hydrodesulfurization, hydrodenitroficationtechniques. Methods to change one or more desired properties of thecrude feed are described in U.S. Published Patent Application No.2009-0071652 to Vinegar et al.

In some embodiments, hydrotreating non-aqueous stream 240 results in ahydrocarbon stream having a nitrogen compound content of at most 200 ppmby weight, at most 150 ppm, at most 110 ppm, at most 50 ppm, or at most10 ppm of nitrogen compounds. The hydrotreated liquid stream may have asulfur compound content of at most 1000 ppm, at most 500 ppm, at most300 ppm, at most 100 ppm, or at most 10 ppm by weight of sulfurcompounds.

In some embodiments, formation fluid 212 is produced from a hydrocarboncontaining formation having a low vitrinite reflectance and/or highsulfur content using an in situ heat treatment process. Such formationfluid may have different characteristics than formation fluid producedfrom a hydrocarbon containing formation having a vitrinite reflectanceof greater than 0.5% and/or a relatively low total sulfur content. Theformation fluid produced from formations having a low vitrinitereflectance and/or high sulfur content may include sulfur compounds thatcan be removed under mild processing conditions. The formation fluidproduced from formations having a low vitrinite reflectance and/or highsulfur content may have an API gravity of about 38°, a hydrogen contentof about 12% by weight, a total sulfur content of about 3.4% by weight,an oxygen content of about 0.6% by weight, a nitrogen content of about0.3% by weight and a H/C ratio of about 1.8.

The liquid process stream may be separated into various distillatehydrocarbon fractions (for example, naphtha, kerosene, and vacuum gasoil fractions). In some embodiments, the naphtha fraction may contain atleast 10% by weight thiophenes. The kerosene fraction may contain about35% by weight thiophenes, about 1% by weight hydrogenatedbenzothiophenes, and about 4% by weight benzothiophenes. The vacuum gasoil fraction may contain about 10% by weight thiophenes, at least 1.5%by weight hydrogenated benzothiophenes, about 30% benzothiophenes, andabout 3% by weight dibenzothiophenes. In some embodiments, thethiophenes may be separated from the produced formation fluid and usedas a solvent in the in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments,hydrocarbon fractions containing thiophenes may be used as solvationfluids in the in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments,hydrocarbon fractions that include at least 10% by weight thiophenes maybe removed from the formation fluid using mild hydrotreating conditions.

Asphalt/bitumen compositions are a commonly used material forconstruction purposes, such as road pavement and/or roofing material.Residues from fractional and/or vacuum distillation may be used toprepare asphalt/bitumen compositions. Alternatively, asphalt/bitumenused in asphalt/bitumen compositions may be obtained from naturalresources or by treating a crude oil in a de-asphalting unit to separatethe asphalt/bitumen from lighter hydrocarbons in the crude oil.Asphalt/bitumen alone, however, often does not possess all the physicalcharacteristics desirable for many construction purposes.Asphalt/bitumen may be susceptible to moisture loss, permanentdeformation (for example, ruts and/or potholes), and/or cracking.Modifiers may be added to asphalt/bitumen to form asphalt/bitumencompositions to improve weatherability of the asphalt/bitumencompositions. Examples, of modifiers include binders, adhesionimprovers, antioxidants, extenders, fibers, fillers, oxidants, orcombinations thereof. Examples adhesion improvers include fatty acids,inorganic acids, organic amines, amides, phenols, and polyamidoamines.These compositions may have improved characteristics as compared toasphalt/bitumen alone. U.S. Pat. No. 4,325,738 to Plancher et al.describes addition of fractions removed from shale oil that contain highamounts of nitrogen may be used as moisture damage inhibiting agents inasphalt/bitumen compositions. The high nitrogen fractions may beobtained by distillation and/or acid extraction. While the compositionof the prior art is often effective in improving the weatherability ofasphalt-aggregate compositions, asphalt/bitumen compositions havingimproved resistance to moisture loss, cracking, and deformation arestill needed.

In some embodiments, a residue stream generated from an in situ heattreatment (ISHT) process and/or through further treatment of the liquidstream generated from an ISHT process is blended with asphalt/bitumen toform an ISHT residue/asphalt/bitumen composition. The ISHTresidue/asphalt/bitumen blend may have enhanced water sensitivity and/ortensile strength. The ISHT residue/asphalt/bitumen blend may absorb lesswater and/or have improved tensile strength modulus as compared to otherasphalt/bitumen blends made with adhesion improvers. Absorption of lesswater by ISHT residue/asphalt/bitumen blends may decrease crackingand/or pothole formation in paved roads as compared to asphalt/bitumenblends made with conventional adhesion improvers. Use of ISHT residue inasphalt/bitumen compositions may allow the compositions to be madewithout or with reduced amounts of expensive adhesion improvers.

ISHT residue may be generated as from bottoms streams, separators and/orhydrotreating units used to process liquid stream 230. ISHT residue mayhave at least 50% by weight or at least 80% by weight or at least 90% byweight of hydrocarbons having a boiling point above 538° C. In someembodiments, ISHT residue has an initial boiling point of at least 400°C. as determined by SIMDIS750, about 50% by weight asphaltenes, about 3%by weight saturates, about 10% by weight aromatics, and about 36% byweight resins as determined by SARA analysis. In some embodiments, ISHTresidue may have a total metal content of about 1 ppm to about 500 ppm,from about 10 ppm to about 400 ppm, or from about 100 ppm to about 300ppm of metals from Columns 1-14 of the Periodic Table. In someembodiments, ISHT residue may include about 2 ppm aluminum, about 5 ppmcalcium, about 100 ppm iron, about 50 ppm nickel, about 10 ppmpotassium, about 10 ppm of sodium, and about 5 ppm vanadium asdetermined by ICP test method such as ASTM Test Method D5185. ISHTresidue may be a hard material. For example, ISHT residue may exhibit apenetration of at most 3 at 60° C. (0.1 mm) as measured by ASTM TestMethod D243, and a ring-and-ball (R&B) temperature of about 139° C. asdetermined by ASTM Test Method D36.

A blend of ISHT residue and asphalt/bitumen may be prepared by reducingthe particle size of the ISHT residue (for example, crushing orpulverizing the ISHT residue) and heating the crushed ISHT residue tosoften the ISHT particles. The ISHT residue may melt at temperaturesabove 200° C. Hot ISHT residue may be added to asphalt/bitumen at atemperature ranging from about 150° C. to about 200° C., from about 180°C. to about 195° C., or from about 185° C. to about 195° C. for a periodof time to form an ISHT residue/asphalt/bitumen blend.

The ISHT residue/asphalt/bitumen composition may include from about0.001% by weight to about 50% by weight, from about 0.05% by weight toabout 25% by weight, or from about 0.1% by weight to about 5% by weightof ISHT residue. The ISHT residue/asphalt/bitumen composition mayinclude from about 99.999% by weight to about 50% by weight, from about99.05% by weight to about 75% by weight, and from about 99.9% by weightto about 95% by weight of asphalt/bitumen. In some embodiments, theblend may include about 20% by weight ISHT residue and about 80% byweight asphalt/bitumen or about 8% by weight ISHT residue and 92% byweight asphalt/bitumen. In some embodiments, additives may be added tothe ISHT residue/asphalt/bitumen composition. Additives include, but arenot limited to, antioxidants, extenders, fibers, fillers, oxidants, ormixtures thereof.

The ISHT residue/asphalt/bitumen composition may be used as a binder inpaving and/or roofing applications, for example, road paving, shingles,roofing felts, paints, pipecoating, briquettes, thermal and/or phonicinsulation, and clay pigeons. In some embodiments, a sufficient amountof ISHT residue may be mixed with asphalt/bitumen to produce an ISHTresidue/asphalt/bitumen composition having a 70/100 penetration grade asmeasured according to EN1426. For example, a mixture of about 8% byweight of ISHT residue and about 91% asphalt/bitumen has a penetrationbetween 70 and 100. The ISHT residue/asphalt/bitumen blend of 70/100penetration grade is suitable for paving applications.

Many wells are needed for treating the hydrocarbon formation using thein situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments, vertical orsubstantially vertical wells are formed in the formation. In someembodiments, horizontal or u-shaped wells are formed in the formation.In some embodiments, combinations of horizontal and vertical wells areformed in the formation.

A manufacturing approach for forming wellbores in the formation may beused due to the large number of wells that need to be formed for the insitu heat treatment process. The manufacturing approach may beparticularly applicable for forming wells for in situ heat treatmentprocesses that utilize u-shaped wells or other types of wells that havelong non-vertically oriented sections. Surface openings for the wellsmay be positioned in lines running along one or two sides of thetreatment area. FIG. 3 depicts a schematic representation of anembodiment of a system for forming wellbores of the in situ heattreatment process.

The manufacturing approach for forming wellbores may include: 1)delivering flat rolled steel to near site tube manufacturing plant thatforms coiled tubulars and/or pipe for surface pipelines; 2)manufacturing large diameter coiled tubing that is tailored to therequired well length using electrical resistance welding (ERW), whereinthe coiled tubing has customized ends for the bottom hole assembly (BHA)and hang off at the wellhead; 3) deliver the coiled tubing to a drillingrig on a large diameter reel; 4) drill to total depth with coil and aretrievable bottom hole assembly; 5) at total depth, disengage the coiland hang the coil on the wellhead; 6) retrieve the BHA; 7) launch anexpansion cone to expand the coil against the formation; 8) return emptyspool to the tube manufacturing plant to accept a new length of coiledtubing; 9) move the gantry type drilling platform to the next welllocation; and 10) repeat.

In situ heat treatment process locations may be distant from establishedcities and transportation networks. Transporting formed pipe or coiledtubing for wellbores to the in situ process location may be untenabledue to the lengths and quantity of tubulars needed for the in situ heattreatment process. One or more tube manufacturing facilities 250 may beformed at or near to the in situ heat treatment process location. Thetubular manufacturing facility may form plate steel into coiled tubing.The plate steel may be delivered to tube manufacturing facilities 250 bytruck, train, ship or other transportation system. In some embodiments,different sections of the coiled tubing may be formed of differentalloys. The tubular manufacturing facility may use ERW to longitudinallyweld the coiled tubing.

Tube manufacturing facilities 250 may be able to produce tubing havingvarious diameters. Tube manufacturing facilities may initially be usedto produce coiled tubing for forming wellbores. The tube manufacturingfacilities may also be used to produce heater components, piping fortransporting formation fluid to surface facilities, and other piping andtubing needs for the in situ heat treatment process.

Tube manufacturing facilities 250 may produce coiled tubing used to formwellbores in the formation. The coiled tubing may have a large diameter.The diameter of the coiled tubing may be from about 4 inches to about 8inches in diameter. In some embodiments, the diameter of the coiledtubing is about 6 inches in diameter. The coiled tubing may be placed onlarge diameter reels. Large diameter reels may be needed due to thelarge diameter of the tubing. The diameter of the reel may be from about10 m to about 50 m. One reel may hold all of the tubing needed forcompleting a single well to total depth.

In some embodiments, tube manufacturing facilities 250 has the abilityto apply expandable zonal inflow profiler (EZIP) material to one or moresections of the tubing that the facility produces. The EZIP material maybe placed on portions of the tubing that are to be positioned near andnext to aquifers or high permeability layers in the formation. Whenactivated, the EZIP material forms a seal against the formation that mayserve to inhibit migration of formation fluid between different layers.The use of EZIP layers may inhibit saline formation fluid from mixingwith non-saline formation fluid.

The size of the reels used to hold the coiled tubing may prohibittransport of the reel using standard moving equipment and roads. Becausetube manufacturing facility 250 is at or near the in situ heat treatmentlocation, the equipment used to move the coiled tubing to the well sitesdoes not have to meet existing road transportation regulations and canbe designed to move large reels of tubing. In some embodiments theequipment used to move the reels of tubing is similar to cargo gantriesused to move shipping containers at ports and other facilities. In someembodiments, the gantries are wheeled units. In some embodiments, thecoiled tubing may be moved using a rail system or other transportationsystem.

The coiled tubing may be moved from the tubing manufacturing facility tothe well site using gantries 252. Drilling gantry 254 may be used at thewell site. Several drilling gantries 254 may be used to form wellboresat different locations. Supply systems for drilling fluid or other needsmay be coupled to drilling gantries 254 from central facilities 256.

Drilling gantry 254 or other equipment may be used to set the conductorfor the well. Drilling gantry 254 takes coiled tubing, passes the coiledtubing through a straightener, and a BHA attached to the tubing is usedto drill the wellbore to depth. In some embodiments, a composite coil ispositioned in the coiled tubing at tube manufacturing facility 250. Thecomposite coil allows the wellbore to be formed without having drillingfluid flowing between the formation and the tubing. The composite coilalso allows the BHA to be retrieved from the wellbore. The compositecoil may be pulled from the tubing after wellbore formation. Thecomposite coil may be returned to the tubing manufacturing facility tobe placed in another length of coiled tubing. In some embodiments, theBHAs are not retrieved from the wellbores.

In some embodiments, drilling gantry 254 takes the reel of coiled tubingfrom gantry 252. In some embodiments, gantry 252 is coupled to drillinggantry 254 during the formation of the wellbore. For example, the coiledtubing may be fed from gantry 252 to drilling gantry 254, or thedrilling gantry lifts the gantry to a feed position and the tubing isfed from the gantry to the drilling gantry.

The wellbore may be formed using the bottom hole assembly, coiled tubingand the drilling gantry. The BHA may be self-seeking to the destination.The BHA may form the opening at a fast rate. In some embodiments, theBHA forms the opening at a rate of about 100 meters per hour.

After the wellbore is drilled to total depth, the tubing may besuspended from the wellhead. An expansion cone may be used to expand thetubular against the formation. In some embodiments, the drilling gantryis used to install a heater and/or other equipment in the wellbore.

When drilling gantry 254 is finished at well site 258, the drillinggantry may release gantry 252 with the empty reel or return the emptyreel to the gantry. Gantry 252 may take the empty reel back to tubemanufacturing facility 250 to be loaded with another coiled tube.Gantries 252 may move on looped path 260 from tube manufacturingfacility 250 to well sites 258 and back to the tube manufacturingfacility.

Drilling gantry 254 may be moved to the next well site. Globalpositioning satellite information, lasers and/or other information maybe used to position the drilling gantry at desired locations. Additionalwellbores may be formed until all of the wellbores for the in situ heattreatment process are formed.

In some embodiments, positioning and/or tracking system may be utilizedto track gantries 252, drilling gantries 254, coiled tubing reels andother equipment and materials used to develop the in situ heat treatmentlocation. Tracking systems may include bar code tracking systems toensure equipment and materials arrive where and when needed.

Some wellbores formed in the formation may be used to facilitateformation of a perimeter barrier around a treatment area. Heat sourcesin the treatment area may heat hydrocarbons in the formation within thetreatment area. The perimeter barrier may be, but is not limited to, alow temperature or frozen barrier formed by freeze wells, a wax barrierformed in the formation, dewatering wells, a grout wall formed in theformation, a sulfur cement barrier, a barrier formed by a gel producedin the formation, a barrier formed by precipitation of salts in theformation, a barrier formed by a polymerization reaction in theformation, and/or sheets driven into the formation. Heat sources,production wells, injection wells, dewatering wells, and/or monitoringwells may be installed in the treatment area defined by the barrierprior to, simultaneously with, or after installation of the barrier.

A low temperature zone around at least a portion of a treatment area maybe formed by freeze wells. In an embodiment, refrigerant is circulatedthrough freeze wells to form low temperature zones around each freezewell. The freeze wells are placed in the formation so that the lowtemperature zones overlap and form a low temperature zone around thetreatment area. The low temperature zone established by freeze wells ismaintained below the freezing temperature of aqueous fluid in theformation. Aqueous fluid entering the low temperature zone freezes andforms the frozen barrier. In other embodiments, the freeze barrier isformed by batch operated freeze wells. A cold fluid, such as liquidnitrogen, is introduced into the freeze wells to form low temperaturezones around the freeze wells. The fluid is replenished as needed.

Grout, wax, polymer or other material may be used in combination withfreeze wells to provide a barrier for the in situ heat treatmentprocess. The material may fill cavities (vugs) in the formation andreduces the permeability of the formation. The material may have higherthermal conductivity than gas and/or formation fluid that fills cavitiesin the formation. Placing material in the cavities may allow for fasterlow temperature zone formation. The material may form a perpetualbarrier in the formation that may strengthen the formation. The use ofmaterial to form the barrier in unconsolidated or substantiallyunconsolidated formation material may allow for larger well spacing thanis possible without the use of the material. The combination of thematerial and the low temperature zone formed by freeze wells mayconstitute a double barrier for environmental regulation purposes. Insome embodiments, the material is introduced into the formation as aliquid, and the liquid sets in the formation to form a solid. Thematerial may be, but is not limited to, fine cement, micro fine cement,sulfur, sulfur cement, viscous thermoplastics, and/or waxes. Thematerial may include surfactants, stabilizers or other chemicals thatmodify the properties of the material. For example, the presence ofsurfactant in the material may promote entry of the material into smallopenings in the formation.

Material may be introduced into the formation through freeze wellwellbores. The material may be allowed to set. The integrity of the wallformed by the material may be checked. The integrity of the materialwall may be checked by logging techniques and/or by hydrostatic testing.If the permeability of a section formed by the material is too high,additional material may be introduced into the formation through freezewell wellbores. After the permeability of the section is sufficientlyreduced, freeze wells may be installed in the freeze well wellbores.

Material may be injected into the formation at a pressure that is high,but below the fracture pressure of the formation. In some embodiments,injection of material is performed in 16 m increments in the freezewellbore. Larger or smaller increments may be used if desired. In someembodiments, material is only applied to certain portions of theformation. For example, material may be applied to the formation throughthe freeze wellbore only adjacent to aquifer zones and/or to relativelyhigh permeability zones (for example, zones with a permeability greaterthan about 0.1 darcy). Applying material to aquifers may inhibitmigration of water from one aquifer to a different aquifer. For materialplaced in the formation through freeze well wellbores, the material mayinhibit water migration between aquifers during formation of the lowtemperature zone. The material may also inhibit water migration betweenaquifers when an established low temperature zone is allowed to thaw.

In some embodiments, the material used to form a barrier may be finecement and micro fine cement. Cement may provide structural support inthe formation. Fine cement may be ASTM type 3 Portland cement. Finecement may be less expensive than micro fine cement. In an embodiment, afreeze wellbore is formed in the formation. Selected portions of thefreeze wellbore are grouted using fine cement. Then, micro fine cementis injected into the formation through the freeze wellbore. The finecement may reduce the permeability down to about 10 millidarcy. Themicro fine cement may further reduce the permeability to about 0.1millidarcy. After the grout is introduced into the formation, a freezewellbore canister may be inserted into the formation. The process may berepeated for each freeze well that will be used to form the barrier.

In some embodiments, fine cement is introduced into every other freezewellbore. Micro fine cement is introduced into the remaining wellbores.For example, grout may be used in a formation with freeze wellbores setat about 5 m spacing. A first wellbore is drilled and fine cement isintroduced into the formation through the wellbore. A freeze wellcanister is positioned in the first wellbore. A second wellbore isdrilled 10 m away from the first wellbore. Fine cement is introducedinto the formation through the second wellbore. A freeze well canisteris positioned in the second wellbore. A third wellbore is drilledbetween the first wellbore and the second wellbore. In some embodiments,grout from the first and/or second wellbores may be detected in thecuttings of the third wellbore. Microfine cement is introduced into theformation through the third wellbore. A freeze wellbore canister ispositioned in the third wellbore. The same procedure is used to form theremaining freeze wells that will form the barrier around the treatmentarea.

Fiber optic temperature monitoring systems may also be used to monitortemperatures in heated portions of the formation during in situ heattreatment processes. Temperature monitoring systems positioned inproduction wells, heater wells, injection wells, and/or monitor wellsmay be used to measure temperature profiles in treatment areas subjectedto in situ heat treatment processes. The fiber of a fiber optic cableused in the heated portion of the formation may be clad with areflective material to facilitate retention of a signal or signalstransmitted down the fiber. In some embodiments, the fiber is clad withgold, copper, nickel, aluminum and/or alloys thereof. The cladding maybe formed of a material that is able to withstand chemical andtemperature conditions in the heated portion of the formation. Forexample, gold cladding may allow an optical sensor to be used up totemperatures of 700° C. In some embodiments, the fiber is clad withaluminum. The fiber may be dipped in or run through a bath of liquidaluminum. The clad fiber may then be allowed to cool to secure thealuminum to the fiber. The gold or aluminum cladding may reduce hydrogendarkening of the optical fiber.

In some embodiments, two or more rows of freeze wells are located aboutall or a portion of the perimeter of the treatment area to form a thickinterconnected low temperature zone. Thick low temperature zones may beformed adjacent to areas in the formation where there is a high flowrate of aqueous fluid in the formation. The thick barrier may ensurethat breakthrough of the frozen barrier established by the freeze wellsdoes not occur.

In some embodiments, a double barrier system is used to isolate atreatment area. The double barrier system may be formed with a firstbarrier and a second barrier. The first barrier may be formed around atleast a portion of the treatment area to inhibit fluid from entering orexiting the treatment area. The second barrier may be formed around atleast a portion of the first barrier to isolate an inter-barrier zonebetween the first barrier and the second barrier. The inter-barrier zonemay have a thickness from about 1 m to about 300 m. In some embodiments,the thickness of the inter-barrier zone is from about 10 m to about 100m, or from about 20 m to about 50 m.

The double barrier system may allow greater project depths than a singlebarrier system. Greater depths are possible with the double barriersystem because the stepped differential pressures across the firstbarrier and the second barrier is less than the differential pressureacross a single barrier. The smaller differential pressures across thefirst barrier and the second barrier make a breach of the double barriersystem less likely to occur at depth for the double barrier system ascompared to the single barrier system. In some embodiments, additionalbarriers may be positioned to connect the inner barrier to the outerbarrier. The additional barriers may further strengthen the doublebarrier system and define compartments that limit the amount of fluidthat can pass from the inter-barrier zone to the treatment area should abreach occur in the first barrier.

The first barrier and the second barrier may be the same type of barrieror different types of barriers. In some embodiments, the first barrierand the second barrier are formed by freeze wells. In some embodiments,the first barrier is formed by freeze wells, and the second barrier is agrout wall. The grout wall may be formed of cement, sulfur, sulfurcement, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, a portion of thefirst barrier and/or a portion of the second barrier is a naturalbarrier, such as an impermeable rock formation.

In some embodiments, one or both barriers may be formed from wellborespositioned in the formation. The position of the wellbores used to formthe second barrier may be adjusted relative to the wellbores used toform the first barrier to limit a separation distance between a breachor portion of the barrier that is difficult to form and the nearestwellbore. For example, if freeze wells are used to form both barriers ofa double barrier system, the position of the freeze wells may beadjusted to facilitate formation of the barriers and limit the distancebetween a potential breach and the closest wells to the breach.Adjusting the position of the wells of the second barrier relative tothe wells of the first barrier may also be used when one or more of thebarriers are barriers other than freeze barriers (for example,dewatering wells, cement barriers, grout barriers, and/or wax barriers).

In some embodiments, wellbores for forming the first barrier are formedin a row in the formation. During formation of the wellbores, loggingtechniques and/or analysis of cores may be used to determine theprincipal fracture direction and/or the direction of water flow in oneor more layers of the formation. In some embodiments, two or more layersof the formation may have different principal fracture directions and/orthe directions of water flow that need to be addressed. In suchformations, three or more barriers may need to be formed in theformation to allow for formation of the barriers that inhibit inflow offormation fluid into the treatment area or outflow of formation fluidfrom the treatment area. Barriers may be formed to isolate particularlayers in the formation.

The principal fracture direction and/or the direction of water flow maybe used to determine the placement of wells used to form the secondbarrier relative to the wells used to form the first barrier. Theplacement of the wells may facilitate formation of the first barrier andthe second barrier.

FIG. 4 depicts a schematic representation of barrier wells 200 used toform a first barrier and barrier wells 200′ used to form a secondbarrier when the principal fracture direction and/or the direction ofwater flow is at angle A relative to the first barrier. The principalfracture direction and/or direction of water flow is indicated by arrow356. The case where angle A is 0 is the case where the principalfracture direction and/or the direction of water flow is substantiallynormal to the barriers. Spacing between two adjacent barrier wells 200of the first barrier or between barrier wells 200′ of the second barrierare indicated by distance s. The spacing s may be 2 m, 3 m, 10 m orgreater. Distance d indicates the separation distance between the firstbarrier and the second barrier. Distance d may be less than s, equal tos, or greater than s. Barrier wells 200′ of the second barrier may haveoffset distance od relative to barrier wells 200 of the first barrier.Offset distance od may be calculated by the equation:

od=s/2−d*tan(A).  (EQN. 1)

Using the od according to EQN. 1 maintains a maximum separation distanceof s/4 between a barrier well and a regular fracture extending betweenthe barriers. Having a maximum separation distance of s/4 by adjustingthe offset distance based on the principal fracture direction and/or thedirection of water flow may enhance formation of the first barrierand/or second barrier. Having a maximum separation distance of s/4 byadjusting the offset distance of wells of the second barrier relative tothe wells of the first barrier based on the principal fracture directionand/or the direction of water flow may reduce the time needed to reformthe first barrier and/or the second barrier should a breach of the firstbarrier and/or the second barrier occur.

In some embodiments, od may be set at a value between the valuegenerated by EQN. 1 and the worst case value. The worst case value of odmay be if barrier wells 200 of the first freeze barrier and barrierwells 200′ of the second barrier are located along the principalfracture direction and/or direction of water flow (along arrow 356). Insuch a case, the maximum separation distance would be s/2. Having amaximum separation distance of s/2 may slow the time needed to form thefirst barrier and/or the second barrier, or may inhibit formation of thebarriers.

In some embodiments, the barrier wells for the treatment area are freezewells. Vertically positioned freeze wells and/or horizontally positionedfreeze wells may be positioned around sides of the treatment area. Ifthe upper layer (the overburden) or the lower layer (the underburden) ofthe formation is likely to allow fluid flow into the treatment area orout of the treatment area, horizontally positioned freeze wells may beused to form an upper and/or a lower barrier for the treatment area. Insome embodiments, an upper barrier and/or a lower barrier may not benecessary if the upper layer and/or the lower layer are at leastsubstantially impermeable. If the upper freeze barrier is formed,portions of heat sources, production wells, injection wells, and/ordewatering wells that pass through the low temperature zone created bythe freeze wells forming the upper freeze barrier wells may be insulatedand/or heat traced so that the low temperature zone does not adverselyaffect the functioning of the heat sources, production wells, injectionwells and/or dewatering wells passing through the low temperature zone.

To form a low temperature barrier, spaced apart wellbores may be formedin the formation where the barrier is to be formed. Piping may be placedin the wellbores. A low temperature heat transfer fluid may becirculated through the piping to reduce the temperature adjacent to thewellbores. The low temperature zone around the wellbores may expandoutward. Eventually the low temperature zones produced by two adjacentwellbores merge. The temperature of the low temperature zones may besufficiently low to freeze formation fluid so that a substantiallyimpermeable barrier is formed. The wellbore spacing may be from about 1m to 3 m or more.

Wellbore spacing may be a function of a number of factors, includingformation composition and properties, formation fluid and properties,time available for forming the barrier, and temperature and propertiesof the low temperature heat transfer fluid. In general, a very coldtemperature of the low temperature heat transfer fluid allows for alarger spacing and/or for quicker formation of the barrier. A very coldtemperature may be −20° C. or less.

In some embodiments, a double barrier system is used to isolate atreatment area. The double barrier system may be formed with a firstbarrier and a second barrier. The first barrier may be formed around atleast a portion of the treatment area to inhibit fluid from entering orexiting the treatment area. The second barrier may be formed around atleast a portion of the first barrier to isolate an inter-barrier zonebetween the first barrier and the second barrier. The double barriersystem may allow greater formation depths than a single barrier system.Greater depths are possible with the double barrier system because thestepped differential pressures across the first barrier and the secondbarrier is less than the differential pressure across a single barrier.The smaller differential pressures across the first barrier and thesecond barrier make a breach of the double barrier system less likely tooccur at depth for the double barrier system as compared to the singlebarrier system.

The double barrier system reduces the probability that a barrier breachwill affect the treatment area or the formation on the outside of thedouble barrier. That is, the probability that the location and/or timeof occurrence of the breach in the first barrier will coincide with thelocation and/or time of occurrence of the breach in the second barrieris low, especially if the distance between the first barrier and thesecond barrier is relatively large (for example, greater than about 15m). Having a double barrier may reduce or eliminate influx of fluid intothe treatment area following a breach of the first barrier or the secondbarrier. The treatment area may not be affected if the second barrierbreaches. If the first barrier breaches, only a portion of the fluid inthe inter-barrier zone is able to enter the contained zone. Also, fluidfrom the contained zone will not pass the second barrier. Recovery froma breach of a barrier of the double barrier system may require less timeand fewer resources than recovery from a breach of a single barriersystem. For example, reheating a treatment area zone following a breachof a double barrier system may require less energy than reheating asimilarly sized treatment area zone following a breach of a singlebarrier system.

The first barrier and the second barrier may be the same type of barrieror different types of barriers. In some embodiments, the first barrierand the second barrier are formed by freeze wells. In some embodiments,the first barrier is formed by freeze wells, and the second barrier is agrout wall. The grout wall may be formed of cement, sulfur, sulfurcement, or combinations thereof (for example, fine cement and micro finecement). In some embodiments, a portion of the first barrier and/or aportion of the second barrier is a natural barrier, such as animpermeable rock formation.

Grout, wax, polymer or other material may be used in combination withfreeze wells to provide a barrier for the in situ heat treatmentprocess. The material may fill cavities in the formation and reduces thepermeability of the formation. The material may have higher thermalconductivity than gas and/or formation fluid that fills cavities in theformation. Placing material in the cavities may allow for faster lowtemperature zone formation. The material may form a perpetual barrier inthe formation that may strengthen the formation. The use of material toform the barrier in unconsolidated or substantially unconsolidatedformation material may allow for larger well spacing than is possiblewithout the use of the material. The combination of the material and thelow temperature zone formed by freeze wells may constitute a doublebarrier for environmental regulation purposes. In some embodiments, thematerial is introduced into the formation as a liquid, and the liquidsets in the formation to form a solid. The material may be, but is notlimited to, fine cement, micro fine cement, sulfur, sulfur cement,viscous thermoplastics, and/or waxes. The material may includesurfactants, stabilizers or other chemicals that modify the propertiesof the material. For example, the presence of surfactant in the materialmay promote entry of the material into small openings in the formation.

Material may be introduced into the formation through freeze wellwellbores. The material may be allowed to set. The integrity of the wallformed by the material may be checked. The integrity of the materialwall may be checked by logging techniques and/or by hydrostatic testing.If the permeability of a section formed by the material is too high,additional material may be introduced into the formation through freezewell wellbores. After the permeability of the section is sufficientlyreduced, freeze wells may be installed in the freeze well wellbores.

Material may be injected into the formation at a pressure that is high,but below the fracture pressure of the formation. In some embodiments,injection of material is performed in 16 m increments in the freezewellbore. Larger or smaller increments may be used if desired. In someembodiments, material is only applied to certain portions of theformation. For example, material may be applied to the formation throughthe freeze wellbore only adjacent to aquifer zones and/or to relativelyhigh permeability zones (for example, zones with a permeability greaterthan about 0.1 darcy). Applying material to aquifers may inhibitmigration of water from one aquifer to a different aquifer. For materialplaced in the formation through freeze well wellbores, the material mayinhibit water migration between aquifers during formation of the lowtemperature zone. The material may also inhibit water migration betweenaquifers when an established low temperature zone is allowed to thaw.

In certain embodiments, portions of a formation where a barrier is to beinstalled may be intentionally fractured. The portions which are to befractured may be subjected to a pressure which is above the formationfracturing pressure but below the overburden fracture pressure. Forexample, steam may be injected through one or more injection/productionwells above the formation fracturing pressure may increase thepermeability. In some embodiments, one or more gas pressure pulses maybe used to fracture portions of the formation. Fractured portionsurrounding the wellbores may allow materials used to create barriers topermeate through the formation more readily.

In some embodiments, if the upper layer (the overburden) or the lowerlayer (the underburden) of the formation is likely to allow fluid flowinto the treatment area or out of the treatment area, horizontallypositioned freeze wells may be used to form an upper and/or a lowerbarrier for the treatment area. In some embodiments, an upper barrierand/or a lower barrier may not be necessary if the upper layer and/orthe lower layer are at least substantially impermeable. If the upperfreeze barrier is formed, portions of heat sources, production wells,injection wells, and/or dewatering wells that pass through the lowtemperature zone created by the freeze wells forming the upper freezebarrier wells may be insulated and/or heat traced so that the lowtemperature zone does not adversely affect the functioning of the heatsources, production wells, injection wells and/or dewatering wellspassing through the low temperature zone.

In some embodiments, one or both barriers may be formed from wellborespositioned in the formation. The position of the wellbores used to formthe second barrier may be adjusted relative to the wellbores used toform the first barrier to limit a separation distance between a breach,or portion of the barrier that is difficult to form, and the nearestwellbore. For example, if freeze wells are used to form both barriers ofa double barrier system, the position of the freeze wells may beadjusted to facilitate formation of the barriers and limit the distancebetween a potential breach and the closest wells to the breach.Adjusting the position of the wells of the second barrier relative tothe wells of the first barrier may also be used when one or more of thebarriers are barriers other than freeze barriers (for example,dewatering wells, cement barriers, grout barriers, and/or wax barriers).

In some embodiments, wellbores for forming the first barrier are formedin a row in the formation. During formation of the wellbores, loggingtechniques and/or analysis of cores may be used to determine theprincipal fracture direction and/or the direction of water flow in oneor more layers of the formation. In some embodiments, two or more layersof the formation may have different principal fracture directions and/orthe directions of water flow that need to be addressed. In suchformations, three or more barriers may need to be formed in theformation to allow for formation of the barriers that inhibit inflow offormation fluid into the treatment area or outflow of formation fluidfrom the treatment area. Barriers may be formed to isolate particularlayers in the formation.

The principal fracture direction and/or the direction of water flow maybe used to determine the placement of wells used to form the secondbarrier relative to the wells used to form the first barrier. Theplacement of the wells may facilitate formation of the first barrier andthe second barrier.

As discussed there are several benefits to employing a double barriersystem to isolate a treatment area. Freeze wells may be used to form thefirst barrier and/or the second barrier. Problems may arise when freezewells are used to form one or more barriers of a double barrier system.For example, a first barrier formed from freeze wells may expand furtherthan is desirable. The first barrier may expand to a point such that thefirst barrier merges with a second barrier for a single barrier. Uponformation of a single barrier advantages associated with a doublebarrier may be lost. It would be beneficial to inhibit one or moreportions of the first barrier and second barrier from forming a singlecombined barrier.

In some embodiments, a double barrier system may include a system whichfunctions, during use, to inhibit one or more portions of the firstbarrier and second barrier from forming a single combined barrier. Insome embodiments, the system may include an injection system. Theinjection system may inject one or more materials in the space whichexists between the first barrier and the second barrier. The materialmay inhibit one or more portions of the first barrier and second barrierfrom forming a single combined barrier. Typically, the material mayinclude one or more fluids which inhibit freezing of water and/or anyother fluids in the space between the first barrier and the secondbarrier. The fluids may be heated to further inhibit expansion of one ormore of the barriers. The fluids may be heated as a result of processesrelated to the in situ heat treatment of hydrocarbons in the treatmentarea defined by the barriers and/or in situ heat treatment processesoccurring in other portions of the hydrocarbon containing formation.

In some embodiments, the system may circulate fluids through the spacewhich exists between the first barrier and the second barrier. Forexample, fluids may be injected through an at least first wellbore in afirst portion of the space and removed through an at least secondwellbore in a second portion of the space. The wellbores may servemultiple purposes (for example, heating, production, etc.). The fluidscirculating through the space may be cooled by the barriers. Cooledfluids which are removed from the space between the barriers may be usedfor processes related to the in situ heat treatment of hydrocarbons inthe treatment area defined by the barriers and/or in situ heat treatmentprocesses occurring in other portions of the hydrocarbon containingformation. In some embodiments, the fluids may be recirculated throughthe space between the barriers, therefore, the system may include asubsystem on the surface for reheating fluids before they are reinjectedthrough the first wellbore.

In some embodiments, fluids may include water. Injecting water in thespace between the first barrier and second barrier may inhibit the twobarriers from combining with one another. Water injected in the spacemay be available from processes related to the in situ heat treatment ofhydrocarbons in the treatment area defined by the barriers and/or insitu heat treatment processes occurring in other portions of thehydrocarbon containing formation. Water is a commonly available fluid incertain parts of the world and using local sources of water forinjection reduces costs (for example, costs associated withtransportation). Water from local sources adjacent the treatment areamay be employed for injection in the space.

In some embodiments, local sources of water are natural source of wateror at least result from natural sources. When water from local sourcesis used fluctuation in availability of such sources must be taken intoconsideration. Natural sources of water may be subject to seasonalchanges of availability. For example, when treatment areas are adjacentto mountainous regions runoff water from melting snows may be employed.Local water source including, but not limited to, seasonal water sourcesmay be used for in situ heat treatment processes (for example,inhibiting one or more portions of the first barrier and second barrierfrom forming a single combined barrier, forming barriers by injectingthe water in freeze wells). In some embodiments, injected fluids mayinclude additives. Additives may include other fluids, solid materialswhich may or may not dissolve in the injected fluids. Additive may servea variety of different purposes. For example, additives may function todecrease the freezing point of the fluid used below its naturallyoccurring freeze point without any additives. An example of a fluid withadditives capable of reducing the fluids freezing point may includewater with salt dissolved in the water. Water is an inexpensive andcommonly available fluid whose properties are well known; however,typically, frozen barriers are formed from predominantly water, makingwaters use as a circulating fluid to inhibit merging of multiplebarriers potentially problematic. The frozen barriers are by definitioncold enough to potentially freeze any water circulated through the spacebetween the barriers, potentially contributing to the problem of mergingbarriers. Salt is a relatively inexpensive and commonly availablematerial which is soluble in water and reduces the freezing point ofwater.

In some embodiments, heat may be provided to the space between barriers.Providing heat to the space between two barriers may inhibit thebarriers from merging with one another. A plurality of heater wells maybe positioned in the space between the barriers. The number of heaterwells required may be dependent on several factors (for example, thedimensions of the space between the barriers, the materials forming thespace between the barriers, the type of heaters used or combinationsthereof). Heat provided by the heater wells positioned between barrierwells may inhibit the barriers from merging without endangering thestructural integrity of the barriers.

In some embodiments, combinations of different strategies to inhibit themerging of barriers may be employed. For example, fluids may becirculated through the space between barriers while at the same timeusing heater wells to heat the space.

FIG. 5 depicts an embodiment of double barrier system 1302. Theperimeter of treatment area 730 may be surrounded by first barrier 958.First barrier 958 may be surrounded by second barrier 1304.Inter-barrier zones 1306 may be isolated between first barrier 958,second barrier 1304 and partitions 1308. Creating sections withpartitions 1308 between first barrier 958 and second barrier 1304 limitsthe amount of fluid held in individual inter-barrier zones 1306.Partitions 1308 may strengthen double barrier system 1302. In someembodiments, the double barrier system may not include partitions.

The inter-barrier zone may have a thickness from about 1 m to about 300m. In some embodiments, the thickness of the inter-barrier zone is fromabout 10 m to about 100 m, or from about 20 m to about 50 m.

Pumping/monitor wells 960 may be positioned in contained zone 730,inter-barrier zones 1306, and/or outer zone 1310 outside of secondbarrier 1304. Pumping/monitor wells 960 allow for removal of fluid fromtreatment area 730, inter-barrier zones 1306, or outer zone 1310.Pumping/monitor wells 960 also allow for monitoring of fluid levels intreatment area 730, inter-barrier zones 1306, and outer zone 1310.Pumping/monitor wells 960 positioned in inter-barrier zones 1306 may beused to inject and/or circulate fluids to inhibit merging of firstbarrier 958 and second barrier 1304.

In some embodiments, a portion of treatment area 730 is heated by heatsources. The closest heat sources to first barrier 958 may be installeda desired distance away from the first barrier. In some embodiments, thedesired distance between the closest heat sources and first barrier 958is in a range between about 5 m and about 300 m, between about 10 m andabout 200 m, or between about 15 m and about 50 m. For example, thedesired distance between the closest heat sources and first barrier 958may be about 40 m.

FIG. 5 depicts only one embodiment of how a barrier using freeze wellsmay be laid out. The barrier surrounding the treatment area may bearranged in any number of shapes and configurations. Differentconfigurations may result in the barrier having different properties andadvantages (and/or disadvantages). Different formations may benefit fromdifferent barrier configurations. Forming a barrier in a formation wherewater within the formation does not flow much may require less planningrelative to another formation where large volumes of water moveunderground rapidly. Large volumes of relatively rapidly moving waterthrough a formation may create excessive amounts of pressure against aformed barrier and consequently increases the difficulty in initiallyforming the barrier. Changing a shape of a perimeter of the barrier mayreduce the pressures exerted by such exterior (relative to the interiortreatment area) formation water flows, and thus increasing thestructural stability of the barrier.

In some embodiments, a barrier may be oriented at an angle relative to adirection of a flow of water in a formation. Forming the barrier at anangle may reduce the pressure of the water exerted on the exterior ofthe barrier. Large volumes of relatively rapidly moving water through aformation may create excessive amounts of pressure therefore increasingthe difficulty in initially forming the barrier. Several strategies maybe employed to form the barrier under the increased pressures exerted byflowing water.

A barrier may be formed using freeze wells arranged oriented at an anglerelative to a direction of a flow of water in a formation. In someembodiments, freeze wells may be activated sequentially. Activatingfreeze wells sequentially may allow flowing water to more easily flowaround portions of a barrier formed by freeze wells activated first.Allowing water to initially flow through portions of a barrier as thebarrier forms may alleviate pressure exerted by the flowing water uponthe forming barrier, thereby increasing chances of successfully creatinga structurally stable barrier. FIG. 6 depicts a schematic representationof dual barrier containment system 1302. Treatment area 730 may besurrounded by double barrier containment system 1302 formed bysequential activation of freeze wells 1300. Freeze wells 1300A may beactivated first to form a first portion of second barrier 1304. Uponformation of the first portion of second barrier 1304, freeze wells1300B may be activated. Freeze wells 1300B, when activated, form asecond portion of second barrier 1304. Upon formation of the secondportion of second barrier 1304, freeze wells 1300C may be activated.Freeze wells 1300C, when activated, form a third portion of secondbarrier 1304. Sequential activation of freeze wells 1300 may continueuntil second barrier 1304 is formed. In some embodiments, afterformation of second barrier 1304, first barrier 958 may be formed.Formation of first barrier 958 may not require sequential activation toform due to the protection provided by second barrier 1304.

In some embodiments, controlling the pressure within the treatment areaof the hydrocarbon containing formation may assist in successfullycreating a structurally stable barrier. Pressure in the treatment areamay be increased or decreased relative to outside of the treatment areain order to affect the flow of fluids between the interior and exteriorof the treatment area. There are of course a number of ways ofincreasing/decreasing the pressure inside the treatment area known toone skilled in the art (for example, using injection/productions wellsin the treatment area). There are many advantages to controlling thepressure in the treatment area as regards to forming and/or repairingbarriers surrounding at least a portion of the treatment area. When abarrier formed by freeze wells is near completion the interior pressureof the treatment area may be changed to equilibrate the interiorpressure and the exterior pressure of the treatment area. Equilibratingthe pressure may substantially reduce or eliminate the flow of fluidsbetween the exterior and the interior of the treatment area through anyopenings in the barrier. Equilibrating the pressure may reduce thepressure on the barrier itself. Reducing or eliminating the flow offluids between the exterior and the interior of the treatment areathrough any openings in the barrier may facilitate the final formationof the barrier hindered by the flow of fluid through openings in thebarrier.

In some embodiments, one or more horizontal freeze wells may be employedto temporarily divert water flowing through a formation. Diverting waterflow at least temporarily while a barrier is being formed may expediteformation of the barrier. Horizontal freeze well may be used to form anunderground channel or culvert to divert water at least temporarilywhile one or more vertical barriers around a treatment area are formed.

In addition to needing to resist pressure and forces exerted bysubsurface water flows, barriers need to resist pressures and forcesexerted by geomechanical motion. When the formation is heated, the heatinput into the formation may cause expansion of the formation andgeomechanical motion. Geomechanical motion may include geomechanicalshifting, shearing, and/or expansion stress in the formation. Changing ashape of a perimeter of the barrier may reduce the pressures exerted bysuch forces as geomechanical motion. Extra forces may be exerted on oneor more of the edges of a barrier. In some embodiments, a barrier mayhave a perimeter which forms a corrugated surface on the barrier. Acorrugated barrier may be more resistant to geomechanical motion. Insome embodiments, a barrier may extend down vertically in a formationand continue underneath a formation. Extending a barrier (for example, abarrier formed by freeze wells) down and underneath a formation may bemore resistant to geomechanical motion.

The pressure difference between the water flow in the formation and oneor more portions of a barrier (for example, a frozen barrier formed byfreeze wells) may be referred to as disjoining pressure. Disjoiningpressure may inhibit the formation of a barrier. The formation may beanalyzed to assess the most appropriate places to position barriers. Toovercome the problems caused by disjoining pressure on the formation ofbarriers, barriers may be formed rapidly. In some embodiments, supercooled fluids (for example, liquid nitrogen) may be used to rapidlyfreeze water to form the barrier.

FIG. 7 depicts a cross-sectional view of double barrier system 1302 usedto isolate treatment area 730 in the formation. The formation mayinclude one or more fluid bearing zones 1312 and one or more impermeablezones 1314. First barrier 958 may at least partially surround treatmentarea 730. Second barrier 1304 may at least partially surround firstbarrier 958. In some embodiments, impermeable zones 1314 are locatedabove and/or below treatment area 730. Thus, treatment area 730 issealed around the sides and from the top and bottom. In someembodiments, one or more paths 1316 are formed to allow communicationbetween two or more fluid bearing zones 1312 in treatment area 730.Fluid in treatment area 730 may be pumped from the zone. Fluid ininter-barrier zone 1306 and fluid in outer zone 1310 is inhibited fromreaching the treatment area. During in situ conversion of hydrocarbonsin treatment area 730, formation fluid generated in the treatment areais inhibited from passing into inter-barrier zone 1306 and outer zone1310.

After sealing treatment area 730, fluid levels in a given fluid bearingzone 1312 may be changed so that the fluid head in inter-barrier zone1306 and the fluid head in outer zone 1310 are different. The amount offluid and/or the pressure of the fluid in individual fluid bearing zones1312 may be adjusted after first barrier 958 and second barrier 1304 areformed. The ability to maintain different amounts of fluid and/orpressure in fluid bearing zones 1312 may indicate the formation andcompleteness of first barrier 958 and second barrier 1304. Havingdifferent fluid head levels in treatment area 730, fluid bearing zones1312 in inter-barrier zone 1306, and in the fluid bearing zones in outerzone 1310 allows for determination of the occurrence of a breach infirst barrier 958 and/or second barrier 1304. In some embodiments, thedifferential pressure across first barrier 958 and second barrier 1304is adjusted to reduce stresses applied to first barrier 958 and/orsecond barrier 1304, or stresses on certain strata of the formation.

Subsurface formations include dielectric media. Dielectric media mayexhibit conductivity, relative dielectric constant, and loss tangents attemperatures below 100° C. Loss of conductivity, relative dielectricconstant, and dissipation factor may occur as the formation is heated totemperatures above 100° C. due to the loss of moisture contained in theinterstitial spaces in the rock matrix of the formation. To prevent lossof moisture, formations may be heated at temperatures and pressures thatminimize vaporization of water. Conductive solutions may be added to theformation to help maintain the electrical properties of the formation.

In some embodiments, the relative dielectric constant and/or theelectrical resistance may be measured on the inside and outside offreeze wells. Monitoring the dielectric constant and/or the electricalresistance may be used to monitor one or more freeze wells. A decreasein the voltage difference between the interior and the exterior of thewell may indicate a leak has formed in the barrier.

Some fluid bearing zones 1312 may contain native fluid that is difficultto freeze because of a high salt content or compounds that reduce thefreezing point of the fluid. If first barrier 958 and/or second barrier1304 are low temperature zones established by freeze wells, the nativefluid that is difficult to freeze may be removed from fluid bearingzones 1312 in inter-barrier zone 1306 through pumping/monitor wells 960.The native fluid is replaced with a fluid that the freeze wells are ableto more easily freeze.

In some embodiments, pumping/monitor wells 960 may be positioned intreatment area 730, inter-barrier zone 1306, and/or outer zone 1310.Pumping/monitor wells 960 may be used to test for freeze completion offrozen barriers and/or for pressure testing frozen barriers and/orstrata. Pumping/monitor wells 960 may be used to remove fluid and/or tomonitor fluid levels in treatment area 730, inter-barrier zone 1306,and/or outer zone 1310. Using pumping/monitor wells 960 to monitor fluidlevels in contained zone 730, inter-barrier zone 1306, and/or outer zone1310 may allow detection of a breach in first barrier 958 and/or secondbarrier 1304. Pumping/monitor wells 960 allow pressure in treatment area730, each fluid bearing zone 1312 in inter-barrier zone 1306, and eachfluid bearing zone in outer zone 1310 to be independently monitored sothat the occurrence and/or the location of a breach in first barrier 958and/or second barrier 1304 can be determined.

In some embodiments, fluid pressure in inter-barrier zone 1306 ismaintained greater than the fluid pressure in treatment area 730, andless than the fluid pressure in outer zone 1310. If a breach of firstbarrier 958 occurs, fluid from inter-barrier zone 1306 flows intotreatment area 730, resulting in a detectable fluid level drop in theinter-barrier zone. If a breach of second barrier 1304 occurs, fluidfrom the outer zone flows into inter-barrier zone 1306, resulting in adetectable fluid level rise in the inter-barrier zone.

A breach of first barrier 958 may allow fluid from inter-barrier zone1306 to enter treatment area 730. FIG. 8 depicts breach 1318 in firstbarrier 958 of double barrier containment system 1302. Arrow 1320indicates flow direction of fluid 1322 from inter-barrier zone 1306 totreatment area 730 through breach 1318. The fluid level in fluid bearingzone 1312 proximate breach 1318 of inter-barrier zone 1306 falls to theheight of the breach.

Path 1316 allows fluid 1322 to flow from breach 1318 to the bottom oftreatment area 730, increasing the fluid level in the bottom of thecontained zone. The volume of fluid that flows into treatment area 730from inter-barrier zone 1306 is typically small compared to the volumeof the treatment area. The volume of fluid able to flow into treatmentarea 730 from inter-barrier zone 1306 is limited because second barrier1304 inhibits recharge of fluid 1322 into the affected fluid bearingzone. In some embodiments, the fluid that enters treatment area 730 maybe pumped from the treatment area using pumping/monitor wells 960 in thetreatment area. In some embodiments, the fluid that enters treatmentarea 730 may be evaporated by heaters in the treatment area that arepart of the in situ conversion process system. The recovery time for theheated portion of treatment area 730 from cooling caused by theintroduction of fluid from inter-barrier zone 1306 is brief. Therecovery time may be less than a month, less than a week, or less than aday.

Pumping/monitor wells 960 in inter-barrier zone 1306 may allowassessment of the location of breach 1318. When breach 1318 initiallyforms, fluid flowing into treatment area 730 from fluid bearing zone1312 proximate the breach creates a cone of depression in the fluidlevel of the affected fluid bearing zone in inter-barrier zone 1306.Time analysis of fluid level data from pumping/monitor wells 960 in thesame fluid bearing zone as breach 1318 can be used to determine thegeneral location of the breach.

When breach 1318 of first barrier 958 is detected, pumping/monitor wells960 located in the fluid bearing zone that allows fluid to flow intotreatment area 730 may be activated to pump fluid out of theinter-barrier zone. Pumping the fluid out of the inter-barrier zonereduces the amount of fluid 1322 that can pass through breach 1318 intotreatment area 730.

Breach 1318 may be caused by ground shift. If first barrier 958 is a lowtemperature zone formed by freeze wells, the temperature of theformation at breach 1318 in the first barrier is below the freezingpoint of fluid 1322 in inter-barrier zone 1306. Passage of fluid 1322from inter-barrier zone 1306 through breach 1318 may result in freezingof the fluid in the breach and self-repair of first barrier 958.

A breach of the second barrier may allow fluid in the outer zone toenter the inter-barrier zone. The first barrier may inhibit fluidentering the inter-barrier zone from reaching the treatment area. FIG. 9depicts breach 1318 in second barrier 1304 of double barrier system1302. Arrow 1320 indicates flow direction of fluid 1322 from outside ofsecond barrier 1304 to inter-barrier zone 1306 through breach 1318. Asfluid 1322 flows through breach 1318 in second barrier 1304, the fluidlevel in the portion of inter-barrier zone 1306 proximate the breachrises from initial level 1324 to a level that is equal to level 1326 offluid in the same fluid bearing zone in outer zone 1310. An increase offluid 1322 in fluid bearing zone 1312 may be detected by pumping/monitorwell 960 positioned in the fluid bearing zone proximate breach 1318 (forexample, a rise of fluid from initial level 1324 to level 1326 inpumping monitor well 960 in inter-barrier zone 1306).

Breach 1318 may be caused by ground shift. If second barrier 1304 is alow temperature zone formed by freeze wells, the temperature of theformation at breach 1318 in the second barrier is below the freezingpoint of fluid 1322 entering from outer zone 1310. Fluid from outer zone1310 in breach 1318 may freeze and self-repair second barrier 1304.

First barrier and second barrier of the double barrier containmentsystem may be formed by freeze wells. In certain embodiments, the firstbarrier is formed before the second barrier. The cooling load needed tomaintain the first barrier may be significantly less than the coolingload needed to form the first barrier. After formation of the firstbarrier, the excess cooling capacity that the refrigeration system usedto form the first barrier may be used to form a portion of the secondbarrier. In some embodiments, the second barrier is formed first and theexcess cooling capacity that the refrigeration system used to form thesecond barrier is used to form a portion of the first barrier. After thefirst and second barriers are formed, excess cooling capacity suppliedby the refrigeration system or refrigeration systems used to form thefirst barrier and the second barrier may be used to form a barrier orbarriers around the next contained zone that is to be processed by thein situ conversion process.

In situ heat treatment processes and solution mining processes may heatthe treatment area, remove mass from the treatment area, and greatlyincrease the permeability of the treatment area. In certain embodiments,the treatment area after being treated may have a permeability of atleast 0.1 darcy. In some embodiments, the treatment area after beingtreated has a permeability of at least 1 darcy, of at least 10 darcy, orof at least 100 darcy. The increased permeability allows the fluid tospread in the formation into fractures, microfractures, and/or porespaces in the formation. Outside of the treatment area, the permeabilitymay remain at the initial permeability of the formation. The increasedpermeability allows fluid introduced to flow easily within theformation.

In certain embodiments, a barrier may be formed in the formation after asolution mining process and/or an in situ heat treatment process byintroducing a fluid into the formation. The barrier may inhibitformation fluid from entering the treatment area after the solutionmining and/or in situ heat treatment processes have ended. The barrierformed by introducing fluid into the formation may allow for isolationof the treatment area.

The fluid introduced into the formation to form a barrier may includewax, bitumen, heavy oil, sulfur, polymer, gel, saturated salinesolution, and/or one or more reactants that react to form a precipitate,solid or high viscosity fluid in the formation. In some embodiments,bitumen, heavy oil, reactants and/or sulfur used to form the barrier areobtained from treatment facilities associated with the in situ heattreatment process. For example, sulfur may be obtained from a Clausprocess used to treat produced gases to remove hydrogen sulfide andother sulfur compounds.

The fluid may be introduced into the formation as a liquid, vapor, ormixed phase fluid. The fluid may be introduced into a portion of theformation that is at an elevated temperature. In some embodiments, thefluid is introduced into the formation through wells located near aperimeter of the treatment area. The fluid may be directed away from thetreatment area. The elevated temperature of the formation maintains orallows the fluid to have a low viscosity so that the fluid moves awayfrom the wells. A portion of the fluid may spread outwards in theformation towards a cooler portion of the formation. The relatively highpermeability of the formation allows fluid introduced from one wellboreto spread and mix with fluid introduced from other wellbores. In thecooler portion of the formation, the viscosity of the fluid increases, aportion of the fluid precipitates, and/or the fluid solidifies orthickens so that the fluid forms the barrier to flow of formation fluidinto or out of the treatment area.

In some embodiments, a low temperature barrier formed by freeze wellssurrounds all or a portion of the treatment area. As the fluidintroduced into the formation approaches the low temperature barrier,the temperature of the formation becomes colder. The colder temperatureincreases the viscosity of the fluid, enhances precipitation, and/orsolidifies the fluid to form the barrier to the flow of formation fluidinto or out of the formation. The fluid may remain in the formation as ahighly viscous fluid or a solid after the low temperature barrier hasdissipated.

In certain embodiments, saturated saline solution is introduced into theformation. Components in the saturated saline solution may precipitateout of solution when the solution reaches a colder temperature. Thesolidified particles may form the barrier to the flow of formation fluidinto or out of the formation. The solidified components may besubstantially insoluble in formation fluid.

In certain embodiments, a bitumen barrier may be formed in the formationin situ. An outer portion of a treatment area may be heated into aselected temperature range to mobilize bitumen (for example, betweenabout 80° C. and about 110° C.). Over the selected temperature range, asufficient viscosity of the bitumen is maintained to allow the bitumento move away from the heater wellbores. In certain embodiments, heatersin the heater wellbores are temperature limited heaters withtemperatures near the mobilization temperature of bitumen such that thetemperature near the heaters stays relatively constant and abovetemperatures resulting in the formation of solid bitumen. In someembodiments, the region adjacent to the wellbores used to mobilizebitumen may be heated to a temperature above the mobilizationtemperature, but below the pyrolysis temperature of hydrocarbons in theformation for a period of time. In certain embodiments, the formation isheated to temperatures above the mobilization temperature, but below thepyrolysis temperature of hydrocarbon in the formation for about sixmonths. After the period of time, the heaters may be turned off and thetemperature in the wellbores may be monitored (for example, using afiber optic temperature monitoring system).

In some embodiments, a temperature of bitumen in a portion of theformation between two adjacent heaters is influenced by both heaters. Insome embodiments, the portion of the formation that is heated is betweenan existing barrier (for example, a barrier formed using a freeze well)and the heaters on the outer portion of the formation.

In some embodiments, the heater wellbores used to heat bitumen arededicated heater wellbores. One or more heater wellbores may be locatedat an edge of an area to be treated using the in situ heat treatmentprocess. Heater wellbores may be located a selected distance from theedge of the treatment area. For example, a distance of heater wellborefrom the edge of the treatment area may range from about 20 m to about40 m or from about 25 m to about 35 m. Heater wellbores may be about 1 mto about 2 m above or below a layer containing water. In someembodiments, a dedicated heater wellbore is used to mobilize bitumen toform a barrier.

As the mobilized bitumen enters portions of the formation below themobilization temperature, the bitumen may solidify and form a barrier tofluid flow in the formation. In some embodiments, the mobilized bitumenis allowed to flow and diffuse into the formation from the wellbores.

In some embodiments, the bitumen enters portions of the formationcontaining water cooler than the average temperature of the mobilizedbitumen. The water may be in a portion of the formation below orsubstantially below the heated portion containing bitumen. In someembodiments, the water is in a portion of the formation that is betweenat least two heaters. The water may be cooled, partially frozen, and/orfrozen using one or more freeze wells. In some embodiments, pressure inthe section containing water is adjusted or maintained (for example, atabout 1 MPa) to move water in the section towards the mobilized bitumen.In some embodiments, the bitumen gravity drains to a portion of theformation containing the cool water.

In some embodiments, the portion of the formation containing water isassessed to determine the amount of water saturation in the waterbearing portion. Based on the assessed water saturation in the waterbearing portion, a selected number of wells and spacing of the selectedwells may be determined to ensure that sufficient bitumen is mobilizedto form a barrier of a desired thickness. For example, sufficient wellsand spacing may be determined to create a barrier having a thickness of10 m.

Contact of bitumen with the cool water solidifies the bitumen and/or abitumen/water mixture and forms a barrier to fluid flow in theformation. Contact of the bitumen with the cool water may expand thebitumen and/or bitumen/water mixture to form the barrier. Heating may bestopped, and the formation may be allowed to naturally cool such thatthe bitumen and/or bitumen/water mixture in the formation solidifies.Location of the bitumen barrier may be determined using pressure tests.The integrity of the formed barrier may be tested using pulse testsand/or tracer tests.

After the bitumen barrier is formed, the area inside the bitumen barriermay be treated using an in situ process. The treatment area may beheated using heaters in the treatment area. Temperature in the treatmentarea is controlled such that the bitumen barrier is not compromised. Insome embodiments, after the bitumen barrier is formed, heaters near thebitumen barrier may be exchanged with freeze canisters and used asfreeze wells to form additional freeze barriers. Mobilized and/orvisbroken hydrocarbons may be produced from production wells in thetreatment area during the in situ heat treatment process.

FIGS. 10 and 11 depict representations of embodiments of forming abitumen barrier in a subsurface formation. Heaters 412A in treatmentarea 1328 and/or treatment area 1334 in hydrocarbon layer 388 mayprovide a selected amount of heat to the formation sufficient tomobilize bitumen near heaters 412A. As shown in FIG. 11, heater 412A islocated a selected distance 1336 from treatment area 1328. Mobilizedbitumen may move away from heaters 412A and/or drain towards section1330 in the formation. As shown in FIG. 10, section 1330 is betweensection 1328 and section 1334. It should be understood, however, thatsection 1330 may be adjacent to or surround section 1328 and/or section1334. At least a portion of section 1330 contains water. As shown inFIG. 11, section 1330 may be a fractured layer below section 1328. Waterin section 1330 may be cooled using freeze wells 1300 (shown in FIG.10). Adjusting and/or maintaining a pressure in freeze wells 1300 maymove water in section 1330 towards section 1328 and/or section 1334.

As the bitumen enters section 1330 and contacts water in the section,the bitumen/water mixture may solidify along the perimeter of section1330 or in the section to form bitumen barrier 1338. Formation ofbitumen barrier 1338 may inhibit fluid from flowing in or out of section1328 and/or section 1334. For example, water may be inhibited fromflowing out of section 1330 into section 1328 and/or section 1334. Afterformation of the bitumen barrier, heat from heaters 412B may heatsection 1328 and/or section 1334 to mobilize hydrocarbons in thesections towards production wells 206. Mobilized hydrocarbons may beproduced from production wells 206. In some embodiments, mobilizedhydrocarbons from section 1328 and/or sections 1334 are produced fromother portions of the formation. In some embodiments, at least some ofheaters 412A may be converted to freeze wells to form additionalbarriers in hydrocarbon layer 388.

A potential source of heat loss from the heated formation is due toreflux in wells. Refluxing occurs when vapors condense in a well andflow into a portion of the well adjacent to the heated portion of theformation. Vapors may condense in the well adjacent to the overburden ofthe formation to form condensed fluid. Condensed fluid flowing into thewell adjacent to the heated formation absorbs heat from the formation.Heat absorbed by condensed fluids cools the formation and necessitatesadditional energy input into the formation to maintain the formation ata desired temperature. Some fluids that condense in the overburden andflow into the portion of the well adjacent to the heated formation mayreact to produce undesired compounds and/or coke. Inhibiting fluids fromrefluxing may significantly improve the thermal efficiency of the insitu heat treatment system and/or the quality of the product producedfrom the in situ heat treatment system.

For some well embodiments, the portion of the well adjacent to theoverburden section of the formation is cemented to the formation. Insome well embodiments, the well includes packing material placed nearthe transition from the heated section of the formation to theoverburden. The packing material inhibits formation fluid from passingfrom the heated section of the formation into the section of thewellbore adjacent to the overburden. Cables, conduits, devices, and/orinstruments may pass through the packing material, but the packingmaterial inhibits formation fluid from passing up the wellbore adjacentto the overburden section of the formation.

In some embodiments, one or more baffle systems may be placed in thewellbores to inhibit reflux. The baffle systems may be obstructions tofluid flow into the heated portion of the formation. In someembodiments, refluxing fluid may revaporize on the baffle system beforecoming into contact with the heated portion of the formation.

In some embodiments, a gas may be introduced into the formation throughwellbores to inhibit reflux in the wellbores. In some embodiments, gasmay be introduced into wellbores that include baffle systems to inhibitreflux of fluid in the wellbores. The gas may be carbon dioxide,methane, nitrogen or other desired gas. In some embodiments, theintroduction of gas may be used in conjunction with one or more bafflesystems in the wellbores. The introduced gas may enhance heat exchangeat the baffle systems to help maintain top portions of the bafflesystems colder than the lower portions of the baffle systems.

The flow of production fluid up the well to the surface is desired forsome types of wells, especially for production wells. Flow of productionfluid up the well is also desirable for some heater wells that are usedto control pressure in the formation. The overburden, or a conduit inthe well used to transport formation fluid from the heated portion ofthe formation to the surface, may be heated to inhibit condensation onor in the conduit. Providing heat in the overburden, however, may becostly and/or may lead to increased cracking or coking of formationfluid as the formation fluid is being produced from the formation.

To avoid the need to heat the overburden or to heat the conduit passingthrough the overburden, one or more diverters may be placed in thewellbore to inhibit fluid from refluxing into the wellbore adjacent tothe heated portion of the formation. In some embodiments, the diverterretains fluid above the heated portion of the formation. Fluids retainedin the diverter may be removed from the diverter using a pump, gaslifting, and/or other fluid removal technique. In certain embodiments,two or more diverters that retain fluid above the heated portion of theformation may be located in the production well. Two or more divertersprovide a simple way of separating initial fractions of condensed fluidproduced from the in situ heat treatment system. A pump may be placed ineach of the diverters to remove condensed fluid from the diverters.

In some embodiments, the diverter directs fluid to a sump below theheated portion of the formation. An inlet for a lift system may belocated in the sump. In some embodiments, the intake of the lift systemis located in casing in the sump. In some embodiments, the intake of thelift system is located in an open wellbore. The sump is below the heatedportion of the formation. The intake of the pump may be located 1 m, 5m, 10 m, 20 m or more below the deepest heater used to heat the heatedportion of the formation. The sump may be at a cooler temperature thanthe heated portion of the formation. The sump may be more than 10° C.,more than 50° C., more than 75° C., or more than 100° C. below thetemperature of the heated portion of the formation. A portion of thefluid entering the sump may be liquid. A portion of the fluid enteringthe sump may condense within the sump. The lift system moves the fluidin the sump to the surface.

Production well lift systems may be used to efficiently transportformation fluid from the bottom of the production wells to the surface.Production well lift systems may provide and maintain the maximumrequired well drawdown (minimum reservoir producing pressure) andproducing rates. The production well lift systems may operateefficiently over a wide range of high temperature/multiphase fluids(gas/vapor/steam/water/hydrocarbon liquids) and production ratesexpected during the life of a typical project. Production well liftsystems may include dual concentric rod pump lift systems, chamber liftsystems and other types of lift systems.

Temperature limited heaters may be in configurations and/or may includematerials that provide automatic temperature limiting properties for theheater at certain temperatures. In certain embodiments, ferromagneticmaterials are used in temperature limited heaters. Ferromagneticmaterial may self-limit temperature at or near the Curie temperature ofthe material and/or the phase transformation temperature range toprovide a reduced amount of heat when a time-varying current is appliedto the material. In certain embodiments, the ferromagnetic materialself-limits temperature of the temperature limited heater at a selectedtemperature that is approximately the Curie temperature and/or in thephase transformation temperature range. In certain embodiments, theselected temperature is within about 35° C., within about 25° C., withinabout 20° C., or within about 10° C. of the Curie temperature and/or thephase transformation temperature range. In certain embodiments,ferromagnetic materials are coupled with other materials (for example,highly conductive materials, high strength materials, corrosionresistant materials, or combinations thereof) to provide variouselectrical and/or mechanical properties. Some parts of the temperaturelimited heater may have a lower resistance (caused by differentgeometries and/or by using different ferromagnetic and/ornon-ferromagnetic materials) than other parts of the temperature limitedheater. Having parts of the temperature limited heater with variousmaterials and/or dimensions allows for tailoring the desired heat outputfrom each part of the heater.

Temperature limited heaters may be more reliable than other heaters.Temperature limited heaters may be less apt to break down or fail due tohot spots in the formation. In some embodiments, temperature limitedheaters allow for substantially uniform heating of the formation. Insome embodiments, temperature limited heaters are able to heat theformation more efficiently by operating at a higher average heat outputalong the entire length of the heater. The temperature limited heateroperates at the higher average heat output along the entire length ofthe heater because power to the heater does not have to be reduced tothe entire heater, as is the case with typical constant wattage heaters,if a temperature along any point of the heater exceeds, or is about toexceed, a maximum operating temperature of the heater. Heat output fromportions of a temperature limited heater approaching a Curie temperatureand/or the phase transformation temperature range of the heaterautomatically reduces without controlled adjustment of the time-varyingcurrent applied to the heater. The heat output automatically reduces dueto changes in electrical properties (for example, electrical resistance)of portions of the temperature limited heater. Thus, more power issupplied by the temperature limited heater during a greater portion of aheating process.

In certain embodiments, the system including temperature limited heatersinitially provides a first heat output and then provides a reduced(second heat output) heat output, near, at, or above the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of anelectrically resistive portion of the heater when the temperaturelimited heater is energized by a time-varying current. The first heatoutput is the heat output at temperatures below which the temperaturelimited heater begins to self-limit. In some embodiments, the first heatoutput is the heat output at a temperature about 50° C., about 75° C.,about 100° C., or about 125° C. below the Curie temperature and/or thephase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic material inthe temperature limited heater.

The temperature limited heater may be energized by time-varying current(alternating current or modulated direct current) supplied at thewellhead. The wellhead may include a power source and other components(for example, modulation components, transformers, and/or capacitors)used in supplying power to the temperature limited heater. Thetemperature limited heater may be one of many heaters used to heat aportion of the formation.

In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater includes aconductor that operates as a skin effect or proximity effect heater whentime-varying current is applied to the conductor. The skin effect limitsthe depth of current penetration into the interior of the conductor. Forferromagnetic materials, the skin effect is dominated by the magneticpermeability of the conductor. The relative magnetic permeability offerromagnetic materials is typically between 10 and 1000 (for example,the relative magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic materials istypically at least 10 and may be at least 50, 100, 500, 1000 orgreater). As the temperature of the ferromagnetic material is raisedabove the Curie temperature, or the phase transformation temperaturerange, and/or as the applied electrical current is increased, themagnetic permeability of the ferromagnetic material decreasessubstantially and the skin depth expands rapidly (for example, the skindepth expands as the inverse square root of the magnetic permeability).The reduction in magnetic permeability results in a decrease in the ACor modulated DC resistance of the conductor near, at, or above the Curietemperature, the phase transformation temperature range, and/or as theapplied electrical current is increased. When the temperature limitedheater is powered by a substantially constant current source, portionsof the heater that approach, reach, or are above the Curie temperatureand/or the phase transformation temperature range may have reduced heatdissipation. Sections of the temperature limited heater that are not ator near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range may be dominated by skin effect heating that allowsthe heater to have high heat dissipation due to a higher resistive load.

Curie temperature heaters have been used in soldering equipment, heatersfor medical applications, and heating elements for ovens (for example,pizza ovens). Some of these uses are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos.5,579,575 to Lamome et al.; 5,065,501 to Henschen et al.; and 5,512,732to Yagnik et al., all of which are incorporated by reference as if fullyset forth herein. U.S. Pat. No. 4,849,611 to Whitney et al., which isincorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes aplurality of discrete, spaced-apart heating units including a reactivecomponent, a resistive heating component, and a temperature responsivecomponent.

An advantage of using the temperature limited heater to heathydrocarbons in the formation is that the conductor is chosen to have aCurie temperature and/or a phase transformation temperature range in adesired range of temperature operation. Operation within the desiredoperating temperature range allows substantial heat injection into theformation while maintaining the temperature of the temperature limitedheater, and other equipment, below design limit temperatures. Designlimit temperatures are temperatures at which properties such ascorrosion, creep, and/or deformation are adversely affected. Thetemperature limiting properties of the temperature limited heaterinhibit overheating or burnout of the heater adjacent to low thermalconductivity “hot spots” in the formation. In some embodiments, thetemperature limited heater is able to lower or control heat outputand/or withstand heat at temperatures above 25° C., 37° C., 100° C.,250° C., 500° C., 700° C., 800° C., 900° C., or higher up to 1131° C.,depending on the materials used in the heater.

The temperature limited heater allows for more heat injection into theformation than constant wattage heaters because the energy input intothe temperature limited heater does not have to be limited toaccommodate low thermal conductivity regions adjacent to the heater. Forexample, in Green River oil shale there is a difference of at least afactor of 3 in the thermal conductivity of the lowest richness oil shalelayers and the highest richness oil shale layers. When heating such aformation, substantially more heat is transferred to the formation withthe temperature limited heater than with the conventional heater that islimited by the temperature at low thermal conductivity layers. The heatoutput along the entire length of the conventional heater needs toaccommodate the low thermal conductivity layers so that the heater doesnot overheat at the low thermal conductivity layers and burn out. Theheat output adjacent to the low thermal conductivity layers that are athigh temperature will reduce for the temperature limited heater, but theremaining portions of the temperature limited heater that are not athigh temperature will still provide high heat output. Because heatersfor heating hydrocarbon formations typically have long lengths (forexample, at least 10 m, 100 m, 300 m, 500 m, 1 km or more up to about 10km), the majority of the length of the temperature limited heater may beoperating below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range while only a few portions are at or near the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of thetemperature limited heater.

The use of temperature limited heaters allows for efficient transfer ofheat to the formation. Efficient transfer of heat allows for reductionin time needed to heat the formation to a desired temperature. Forexample, in Green River oil shale, pyrolysis typically requires 9.5years to 10 years of heating when using a 12 m heater well spacing withconventional constant wattage heaters. For the same heater spacing,temperature limited heaters may allow a larger average heat output whilemaintaining heater equipment temperatures below equipment design limittemperatures. Pyrolysis in the formation may occur at an earlier timewith the larger average heat output provided by temperature limitedheaters than the lower average heat output provided by constant wattageheaters. For example, in Green River oil shale, pyrolysis may occur in 5years using temperature limited heaters with a 12 m heater well spacing.Temperature limited heaters counteract hot spots due to inaccurate wellspacing or drilling where heater wells come too close together. Incertain embodiments, temperature limited heaters allow for increasedpower output over time for heater wells that have been spaced too farapart, or limit power output for heater wells that are spaced too closetogether. Temperature limited heaters also supply more power in regionsadjacent the overburden and underburden to compensate for temperaturelosses in these regions.

Temperature limited heaters may be advantageously used in many types offormations. For example, in tar sands formations or relatively permeableformations containing heavy hydrocarbons, temperature limited heatersmay be used to provide a controllable low temperature output forreducing the viscosity of fluids, mobilizing fluids, and/or enhancingthe radial flow of fluids at or near the wellbore or in the formation.Temperature limited heaters may be used to inhibit excess coke formationdue to overheating of the near wellbore region of the formation.

In some embodiments, the use of temperature limited heaters eliminatesor reduces the need for expensive temperature control circuitry. Forexample, the use of temperature limited heaters eliminates or reducesthe need to perform temperature logging and/or the need to use fixedthermocouples on the heaters to monitor potential overheating at hotspots.

In certain embodiments, phase transformation (for example, crystallinephase transformation or a change in the crystal structure) of materialsused in a temperature limited heater change the selected temperature atwhich the heater self-limits. Ferromagnetic material used in thetemperature limited heater may have a phase transformation (for example,a transformation from ferrite to austenite) that decreases the magneticpermeability of the ferromagnetic material. This reduction in magneticpermeability is similar to reduction in magnetic permeability due to themagnetic transition of the ferromagnetic material at the Curietemperature. The Curie temperature is the magnetic transitiontemperature of the ferrite phase of the ferromagnetic material. Thereduction in magnetic permeability results in a decrease in the AC ormodulated DC resistance of the temperature limited heater near, at, orabove the temperature of the phase transformation and/or the Curietemperature of the ferromagnetic material.

The phase transformation of the ferromagnetic material may occur over atemperature range. The temperature range of the phase transformationdepends on the ferromagnetic material and may vary, for example, over arange of about 5° C. to a range of about 200° C. Because the phasetransformation takes place over a temperature range, the reduction inthe magnetic permeability due to the phase transformation takes placeover the temperature range. The reduction in magnetic permeability mayalso occur hysteretically over the temperature range of the phasetransformation. In some embodiments, the phase transformation back tothe lower temperature phase of the ferromagnetic material is slower thanthe phase transformation to the higher temperature phase (for example,the transition from austenite back to ferrite is slower than thetransition from ferrite to austenite). The slower phase transformationback to the lower temperature phase may cause hysteretic operation ofthe heater at or near the phase transformation temperature range thatallows the heater to slowly increase to higher resistance after theresistance of the heater reduces due to high temperature.

In some embodiments, the phase transformation temperature range overlapswith the reduction in the magnetic permeability when the temperatureapproaches the Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic material. Theoverlap may produce a faster drop in electrical resistance versustemperature than if the reduction in magnetic permeability is solely dueto the temperature approaching the Curie temperature. The overlap mayalso produce hysteretic behavior of the temperature limited heater nearthe Curie temperature and/or in the phase transformation temperaturerange.

In certain embodiments, the hysteretic operation due to the phasetransformation is a smoother transition than the reduction in magneticpermeability due to magnetic transition at the Curie temperature. Thesmoother transition may be easier to control (for example, electricalcontrol using a process control device that interacts with the powersupply) than the sharper transition at the Curie temperature. In someembodiments, the Curie temperature is located inside the phasetransformation range for selected metallurgies used in temperaturelimited heaters. This phenomenon provides temperature limited heaterswith the smooth transition properties of the phase transformation inaddition to a sharp and definite transition due to the reduction inmagnetic properties at the Curie temperature. Such temperature limitedheaters may be easy to control (due to the phase transformation) whileproviding finite temperature limits (due to the sharp Curie temperaturetransition). Using the phase transformation temperature range instead ofand/or in addition to the Curie temperature in temperature limitedheaters increases the number and range of metallurgies that may be usedfor temperature limited heaters.

In certain embodiments, alloy additions are made to the ferromagneticmaterial to adjust the temperature range of the phase transformation.For example, adding carbon to the ferromagnetic material may increasethe phase transformation temperature range and lower the onsettemperature of the phase transformation. Adding titanium to theferromagnetic material may increase the onset temperature of the phasetransformation and decrease the phase transformation temperature range.Alloy compositions may be adjusted to provide desired Curie temperatureand phase transformation properties for the ferromagnetic material. Thealloy composition of the ferromagnetic material may be chosen based ondesired properties for the ferromagnetic material (such as, but notlimited to, magnetic permeability transition temperature or temperaturerange, resistance versus temperature profile, or power output). Additionof titanium may allow higher Curie temperatures to be obtained whenadding cobalt to 410 stainless steel by raising the ferrite to austenitephase transformation temperature range to a temperature range that isabove, or well above, the Curie temperature of the ferromagneticmaterial.

In some embodiments, temperature limited heaters are more economical tomanufacture or make than standard heaters. Typical ferromagneticmaterials include iron, carbon steel, or ferritic stainless steel. Suchmaterials are inexpensive as compared to nickel-based heating alloys(such as nichrome, Kanthal™ (Bulten-Kanthal AB, Sweden), and/or LOHM™(Driver-Harris Company, Harrison, N.J., U.S.A.)) typically used ininsulated conductor (mineral insulated cable) heaters. In one embodimentof the temperature limited heater, the temperature limited heater ismanufactured in continuous lengths as an insulated conductor heater tolower costs and improve reliability.

In some embodiments, the temperature limited heater is placed in theheater well using a coiled tubing rig. A heater that can be coiled on aspool may be manufactured by using metal such as ferritic stainlesssteel (for example, 409 stainless steel) that is welded using electricalresistance welding (ERW). U.S. Pat. No. 7,032,809 to Hopkins, which isincorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describesforming seam-welded pipe. To form a heater section, a metal strip from aroll is passed through a former where it is shaped into a tubular andthen longitudinally welded using ERW.

In some embodiments, a composite tubular may be formed from theseam-welded tubular. The seam-welded tubular is passed through a secondformer where a conductive strip (for example, a copper strip) isapplied, drawn down tightly on the tubular through a die, andlongitudinally welded using ERW. A sheath may be formed bylongitudinally welding a support material (for example, steel such as347H or 347HH) over the conductive strip material. The support materialmay be a strip rolled over the conductive strip material. An overburdensection of the heater may be formed in a similar manner.

In certain embodiments, the overburden section uses a non-ferromagneticmaterial such as 304 stainless steel or 316 stainless steel instead of aferromagnetic material. The heater section and overburden section may becoupled using standard techniques such as butt welding using an orbitalwelder. In some embodiments, the overburden section material (thenon-ferromagnetic material) may be pre-welded to the ferromagneticmaterial before rolling. The pre-welding may eliminate the need for aseparate coupling step (for example, butt welding). In an embodiment, aflexible cable (for example, a furnace cable such as a MGT 1000 furnacecable) may be pulled through the center after forming the tubularheater. An end bushing on the flexible cable may be welded to thetubular heater to provide an electrical current return path. The tubularheater, including the flexible cable, may be coiled onto a spool beforeinstallation into a heater well. In an embodiment, the temperaturelimited heater is installed using the coiled tubing rig. The coiledtubing rig may place the temperature limited heater in a deformationresistant container in the formation. The deformation resistantcontainer may be placed in the heater well using conventional methods.

Temperature limited heaters may be used for heating hydrocarbonformations including, but not limited to, oil shale formations, coalformations, tar sands formations, and formations with heavy viscousoils. Temperature limited heaters may also be used in the field ofenvironmental remediation to vaporize or destroy soil contaminants.Embodiments of temperature limited heaters may be used to heat fluids ina wellbore or sub-sea pipeline to inhibit deposition of paraffin orvarious hydrates. In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater isused for solution mining a subsurface formation (for example, an oilshale or a coal formation). In certain embodiments, a fluid (forexample, molten salt) is placed in a wellbore and heated with atemperature limited heater to inhibit deformation and/or collapse of thewellbore. In some embodiments, the temperature limited heater isattached to a sucker rod in the wellbore or is part of the sucker roditself. In some embodiments, temperature limited heaters are used toheat a near wellbore region to reduce near wellbore oil viscosity duringproduction of high viscosity crude oils and during transport of highviscosity oils to the surface. In some embodiments, a temperaturelimited heater enables gas lifting of a viscous oil by lowering theviscosity of the oil without coking the oil. Temperature limited heatersmay be used in sulfur transfer lines to maintain temperatures betweenabout 110° C. and about 130° C.

The ferromagnetic alloy or ferromagnetic alloys used in the temperaturelimited heater determine the Curie temperature of the heater. Curietemperature data for various metals is listed in “American Institute ofPhysics Handbook,” Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, pages 5-170 through5-176. Ferromagnetic conductors may include one or more of theferromagnetic elements (iron, cobalt, and nickel) and/or alloys of theseelements. In some embodiments, ferromagnetic conductors includeiron-chromium (Fe—Cr) alloys that contain tungsten (W) (for example,HCM12A and SAVE12 (Sumitomo Metals Co., Japan) and/or iron alloys thatcontain chromium (for example, Fe—Cr alloys, Fe—Cr—W alloys, Fe—Cr—V(vanadium) alloys, and Fe—Cr—Nb (Niobium) alloys). Of the three mainferromagnetic elements, iron has a Curie temperature of approximately770° C.; cobalt (Co) has a Curie temperature of approximately 1131° C.;and nickel has a Curie temperature of approximately 358° C. Aniron-cobalt alloy has a Curie temperature higher than the Curietemperature of iron. For example, iron-cobalt alloy with 2% by weightcobalt has a Curie temperature of approximately 800° C.; iron-cobaltalloy with 12% by weight cobalt has a Curie temperature of approximately900° C.; and iron-cobalt alloy with 20% by weight cobalt has a Curietemperature of approximately 950° C. Iron-nickel alloy has a Curietemperature lower than the Curie temperature of iron. For example,iron-nickel alloy with 20% by weight nickel has a Curie temperature ofapproximately 720° C., and iron-nickel alloy with 60% by weight nickelhas a Curie temperature of approximately 560° C.

Some non-ferromagnetic elements used as alloys raise the Curietemperature of iron. For example, an iron-vanadium alloy with 5.9% byweight vanadium has a Curie temperature of approximately 815° C. Othernon-ferromagnetic elements (for example, carbon, aluminum, copper,silicon, and/or chromium) may be alloyed with iron or otherferromagnetic materials to lower the Curie temperature.Non-ferromagnetic materials that raise the Curie temperature may becombined with non-ferromagnetic materials that lower the Curietemperature and alloyed with iron or other ferromagnetic materials toproduce a material with a desired Curie temperature and other desiredphysical and/or chemical properties. In some embodiments, the Curietemperature material is a ferrite such as NiFe₂O₄. In other embodiments,the Curie temperature material is a binary compound such as FeNi₃ orFe₃Al.

In some embodiments, the improved alloy includes carbon, cobalt, iron,manganese, silicon, or mixtures thereof. In certain embodiments, theimproved alloy includes, by weight: about 0.1% to about 10% cobalt;about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% manganese, about 0.5% silicon, with thebalance being iron. In certain embodiments, the improved alloy includes,by weight: about 0.1% to about 10% cobalt; about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5%manganese, about 0.5% silicon, with the balance being iron.

In some embodiments, the improved alloy includes chromium, carbon,cobalt, iron, manganese, silicon, titanium, vanadium, or mixturesthereof. In certain embodiments, the improved alloy includes, by weight:about 5% to about 20% cobalt, about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% manganese,about 0.5% silicon, about 0.1% to about 2% vanadium with the balancebeing iron. In some embodiments, the improved alloy includes, by weight:about 12% chromium, about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% silicon, about 0.1% toabout 0.5% manganese, above 0% to about 15% cobalt, above 0% to about 2%vanadium, above 0% to about 1% titanium, with the balance being iron. Insome embodiments, the improved alloy includes, by weight: about 12%chromium, about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% silicon, about 0.1% to about0.5% manganese, above 0% to about 2% vanadium, above 0% to about 1%titanium, with the balance being iron. In some embodiments, the improvedalloy includes, by weight: about 12% chromium, about 0.1% carbon, about0.5% silicon, about 0.1% to about 0.5% manganese, above 0% to about 2%vanadium, with the balance being iron. In certain embodiments, theimproved alloy includes, by weight: about 12% chromium, about 0.1%carbon, about 0.5% silicon, about 0.1% to about 0.5% manganese, above 0%to about 15% cobalt, above 0% to about 1% titanium, with the balancebeing iron. In certain embodiments, the improved alloy includes, byweight: about 12% chromium, about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% silicon, about0.1% to about 0.5% manganese, above 0% to about 15% cobalt, with thebalance being iron. The addition of vanadium may allow for use of higheramounts of cobalt in the improved alloy.

Certain embodiments of temperature limited heaters may include more thanone ferromagnetic material. Such embodiments are within the scope ofembodiments described herein if any conditions described herein apply toat least one of the ferromagnetic materials in the temperature limitedheater.

Ferromagnetic properties generally decay as the Curie temperature and/orthe phase transformation temperature range is approached. The “Handbookof Electrical Heating for Industry” by C. James Erickson (IEEE Press,1995) shows a typical curve for 1% carbon steel (steel with 1% carbon byweight). The loss of magnetic permeability starts at temperatures above650° C. and tends to be complete when temperatures exceed 730° C. Thus,the self-limiting temperature may be somewhat below the actual Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of theferromagnetic conductor. The skin depth for current flow in 1% carbonsteel is 0.132 cm at room temperature and increases to 0.445 cm at 720°C. From 720° C. to 730° C., the skin depth sharply increases to over 2.5cm. Thus, a temperature limited heater embodiment using 1% carbon steelbegins to self-limit between 650° C. and 730° C.

Skin depth generally defines an effective penetration depth oftime-varying current into the conductive material. In general, currentdensity decreases exponentially with distance from an outer surface tothe center along the radius of the conductor. The depth at which thecurrent density is approximately 1/e of the surface current density iscalled the skin depth. For a solid cylindrical rod with a diameter muchgreater than the penetration depth, or for hollow cylinders with a wallthickness exceeding the penetration depth, the skin depth, δ, is:

δ=1981.5*(ρ/(μ*f)^(1/2);  (EQN. 2)

-   -   in which:    -   δ=skin depth in inches;    -   ρ=resistivity at operating temperature (ohm-cm);    -   μ=relative magnetic permeability; and    -   f=frequency (Hz).        EQN. 2 is obtained from “Handbook of Electrical Heating for        Industry” by C. James Erickson (IEEE Press, 1995). For most        metals, resistivity (ρ) increases with temperature. The relative        magnetic permeability generally varies with temperature and with        current. Additional equations may be used to assess the variance        of magnetic permeability and/or skin depth on both temperature        and/or current. The dependence of μ on current arises from the        dependence of μ on the electromagnetic field.

Materials used in the temperature limited heater may be selected toprovide a desired turndown ratio. Turndown ratios of at least 1.1:1,2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 10:1, 30:1, or 50:1 may be selected for temperaturelimited heaters. Larger turndown ratios may also be used. A selectedturndown ratio may depend on a number of factors including, but notlimited to, the type of formation in which the temperature limitedheater is located (for example, a higher turndown ratio may be used foran oil shale formation with large variations in thermal conductivitybetween rich and lean oil shale layers) and/or a temperature limit ofmaterials used in the wellbore (for example, temperature limits ofheater materials). In some embodiments, the turndown ratio is increasedby coupling additional copper or another good electrical conductor tothe ferromagnetic material (for example, adding copper to lower theresistance above the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range).

The temperature limited heater may provide a maximum heat output (poweroutput) below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range of the heater. In certain embodiments, the maximumheat output is at least 400 W/m (Watts per meter), 600 W/m, 700 W/m, 800W/m, or higher up to 2000 W/m. The temperature limited heater reducesthe amount of heat output by a section of the heater when thetemperature of the section of the heater approaches or is above theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. Thereduced amount of heat may be substantially less than the heat outputbelow the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperaturerange. In some embodiments, the reduced amount of heat is at most 400W/m, 200 W/m, 100 W/m or may approach 0 W/m.

In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater operatessubstantially independently of the thermal load on the heater in acertain operating temperature range. “Thermal load” is the rate thatheat is transferred from a heating system to its surroundings. It is tobe understood that the thermal load may vary with temperature of thesurroundings and/or the thermal conductivity of the surroundings. In anembodiment, the temperature limited heater operates at or above theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range ofthe temperature limited heater such that the operating temperature ofthe heater increases at most by 3° C., 2° C., 1.5° C., 1° C., or 0.5° C.for a decrease in thermal load of 1 W/m proximate to a portion of theheater. In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater operatesin such a manner at a relatively constant current.

The AC or modulated DC resistance and/or the heat output of thetemperature limited heater may decrease as the temperature approachesthe Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature rangeand decrease sharply near or above the Curie temperature due to theCurie effect and/or phase transformation effect. In certain embodiments,the value of the electrical resistance or heat output above or near theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range isat most one-half of the value of electrical resistance or heat output ata certain point below the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range. In some embodiments, the heat outputabove or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range is at most 90%, 70%, 50%, 30%, 20%, 10%, or less (downto 1%) of the heat output at a certain point below the Curie temperatureand/or the phase transformation temperature range (for example, 30° C.below the Curie temperature, 40° C. below the Curie temperature, 50° C.below the Curie temperature, or 100° C. below the Curie temperature). Incertain embodiments, the electrical resistance above or near the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range decreasesto 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, or less (down to 1%) of the electrical resistanceat a certain point below the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range (for example, 30° C. below the Curietemperature, 40° C. below the Curie temperature, 50° C. below the Curietemperature, or 100° C. below the Curie temperature).

In some embodiments, AC frequency is adjusted to change the skin depthof the ferromagnetic material. For example, the skin depth of 1% carbonsteel at room temperature is 0.132 cm at 60 Hz, 0.0762 cm at 180 Hz, and0.046 cm at 440 Hz. Since heater diameter is typically larger than twicethe skin depth, using a higher frequency (and thus a heater with asmaller diameter) reduces heater costs. For a fixed geometry, the higherfrequency results in a higher turndown ratio. The turndown ratio at ahigher frequency is calculated by multiplying the turndown ratio at alower frequency by the square root of the higher frequency divided bythe lower frequency. In some embodiments, a frequency between 100 Hz and1000 Hz, between 140 Hz and 200 Hz, or between 400 Hz and 600 Hz is used(for example, 180 Hz, 540 Hz, or 720 Hz). In some embodiments, highfrequencies may be used. The frequencies may be greater than 1000 Hz.

To maintain a substantially constant skin depth until the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of thetemperature limited heater is reached, the heater may be operated at alower frequency when the heater is cold and operated at a higherfrequency when the heater is hot. Line frequency heating is generallyfavorable, however, because there is less need for expensive componentssuch as power supplies, transformers, or current modulators that alterfrequency. Line frequency is the frequency of a general supply ofcurrent. Line frequency is typically 60 Hz, but may be 50 Hz or anotherfrequency depending on the source for the supply of the current. Higherfrequencies may be produced using commercially available equipment suchas solid state variable frequency power supplies. Transformers thatconvert three-phase power to single-phase power with three times thefrequency are commercially available. For example, high voltagethree-phase power at 60 Hz may be transformed to single-phase power at180 Hz and at a lower voltage. Such transformers are less expensive andmore energy efficient than solid state variable frequency powersupplies. In certain embodiments, transformers that convert three-phasepower to single-phase power are used to increase the frequency of powersupplied to the temperature limited heater.

In certain embodiments, modulated DC (for example, chopped DC, waveformmodulated DC, or cycled DC) may be used for providing electrical powerto the temperature limited heater. A DC modulator or DC chopper may becoupled to a DC power supply to provide an output of modulated directcurrent. In some embodiments, the DC power supply may include means formodulating DC. One example of a DC modulator is a DC-to-DC convertersystem. DC-to-DC converter systems are generally known in the art. DC istypically modulated or chopped into a desired waveform. Waveforms for DCmodulation include, but are not limited to, square-wave, sinusoidal,deformed sinusoidal, deformed square-wave, triangular, and other regularor irregular waveforms.

The modulated DC waveform generally defines the frequency of themodulated DC. Thus, the modulated DC waveform may be selected to providea desired modulated DC frequency. The shape and/or the rate ofmodulation (such as the rate of chopping) of the modulated DC waveformmay be varied to vary the modulated DC frequency. DC may be modulated atfrequencies that are higher than generally available AC frequencies. Forexample, modulated DC may be provided at frequencies of at least 1000Hz. Increasing the frequency of supplied current to higher valuesadvantageously increases the turndown ratio of the temperature limitedheater.

In certain embodiments, the modulated DC waveform is adjusted or alteredto vary the modulated DC frequency. The DC modulator may be able toadjust or alter the modulated DC waveform at any time during use of thetemperature limited heater and at high currents or voltages. Thus,modulated DC provided to the temperature limited heater is not limitedto a single frequency or even a small set of frequency values. Waveformselection using the DC modulator typically allows for a wide range ofmodulated DC frequencies and for discrete control of the modulated DCfrequency. Thus, the modulated DC frequency is more easily set at adistinct value whereas AC frequency is generally limited to multiples ofthe line frequency. Discrete control of the modulated DC frequencyallows for more selective control over the turndown ratio of thetemperature limited heater. Being able to selectively control theturndown ratio of the temperature limited heater allows for a broaderrange of materials to be used in designing and constructing thetemperature limited heater.

In some embodiments, the modulated DC frequency or the AC frequency isadjusted to compensate for changes in properties (for example,subsurface conditions such as temperature or pressure) of thetemperature limited heater during use. The modulated DC frequency or theAC frequency provided to the temperature limited heater is varied basedon assessed downhole conditions. For example, as the temperature of thetemperature limited heater in the wellbore increases, it may beadvantageous to increase the frequency of the current provided to theheater, thus increasing the turndown ratio of the heater. In anembodiment, the downhole temperature of the temperature limited heaterin the wellbore is assessed.

In certain embodiments, the modulated DC frequency, or the AC frequency,is varied to adjust the turndown ratio of the temperature limitedheater. The turndown ratio may be adjusted to compensate for hot spotsoccurring along a length of the temperature limited heater. For example,the turndown ratio is increased because the temperature limited heateris getting too hot in certain locations. In some embodiments, themodulated DC frequency, or the AC frequency, are varied to adjust aturndown ratio without assessing a subsurface condition.

At or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range of the ferromagnetic material, a relatively smallchange in voltage may cause a relatively large change in current to theload. The relatively small change in voltage may produce problems in thepower supplied to the temperature limited heater, especially at or nearthe Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range.The problems include, but are not limited to, reducing the power factor,tripping a circuit breaker, and/or blowing a fuse. In some cases,voltage changes may be caused by a change in the load of the temperaturelimited heater. In certain embodiments, an electrical current supply(for example, a supply of modulated DC or AC) provides a relativelyconstant amount of current that does not substantially vary with changesin load of the temperature limited heater. In an embodiment, theelectrical current supply provides an amount of electrical current thatremains within 15%, within 10%, within 5%, or within 2% of a selectedconstant current value when a load of the temperature limited heaterchanges.

Temperature limited heaters may generate an inductive load. Theinductive load is due to some applied electrical current being used bythe ferromagnetic material to generate a magnetic field in addition togenerating a resistive heat output. As downhole temperature changes inthe temperature limited heater, the inductive load of the heater changesdue to changes in the ferromagnetic properties of ferromagneticmaterials in the heater with temperature. The inductive load of thetemperature limited heater may cause a phase shift between the currentand the voltage applied to the heater.

A reduction in actual power applied to the temperature limited heatermay be caused by a time lag in the current waveform (for example, thecurrent has a phase shift relative to the voltage due to an inductiveload) and/or by distortions in the current waveform (for example,distortions in the current waveform caused by introduced harmonics dueto a non-linear load). Thus, it may take more current to apply aselected amount of power due to phase shifting or waveform distortion.The ratio of actual power applied and the apparent power that would havebeen transmitted if the same current were in phase and undistorted isthe power factor. The power factor is always less than or equal to 1.The power factor is 1 when there is no phase shift or distortion in thewaveform.

Actual power applied to a heater due to a phase shift may be describedby EQN. 3:

P=I×V×cos(θ);  (EQN. 3)

in which P is the actual power applied to a heater; I is the appliedcurrent; V is the applied voltage; and θ is the phase angle differencebetween voltage and current. Other phenomena such as waveform distortionmay contribute to further lowering of the power factor. If there is nodistortion in the waveform, then cos(θ) is equal to the power factor.

In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater includes an innerconductor inside an outer conductor. The inner conductor and the outerconductor are radially disposed about a central axis. The inner andouter conductors may be separated by an insulation layer. In certainembodiments, the inner and outer conductors are coupled at the bottom ofthe temperature limited heater. Electrical current may flow into thetemperature limited heater through the inner conductor and returnthrough the outer conductor. One or both conductors may includeferromagnetic material.

The insulation layer may include an electrically insulating ceramic withhigh thermal conductivity, such as magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide,silicon dioxide, beryllium oxide, boron nitride, silicon nitride, orcombinations thereof. The insulating layer may be a compacted powder(for example, compacted ceramic powder). Compaction may improve thermalconductivity and provide better insulation resistance. For lowertemperature applications, polymer insulation made from, for example,fluoropolymers, polyimides, polyamides, and/or polyethylenes, may beused. In some embodiments, the polymer insulation is made ofperfluoroalkoxy (PFA) or polyetheretherketone (PEEK™ (Victrex Ltd.,England)). The insulating layer may be chosen to be substantiallyinfrared transparent to aid heat transfer from the inner conductor tothe outer conductor. In an embodiment, the insulating layer istransparent quartz sand. The insulation layer may be air or anon-reactive gas such as helium, nitrogen, or sulfur hexafluoride. Ifthe insulation layer is air or a non-reactive gas, there may beinsulating spacers designed to inhibit electrical contact between theinner conductor and the outer conductor. The insulating spacers may bemade of, for example, high purity aluminum oxide or another thermallyconducting, electrically insulating material such as silicon nitride.The insulating spacers may be a fibrous ceramic material such as Nextel™312 (3M Corporation, St. Paul, Minn., U.S.A.), mica tape, or glassfiber. Ceramic material may be made of alumina, alumina-silicate,alumina-borosilicate, silicon nitride, boron nitride, or othermaterials.

The insulation layer may be flexible and/or substantially deformationtolerant. For example, if the insulation layer is a solid or compactedmaterial that substantially fills the space between the inner and outerconductors, the temperature limited heater may be flexible and/orsubstantially deformation tolerant. Forces on the outer conductor can betransmitted through the insulation layer to the solid inner conductor,which may resist crushing. Such a temperature limited heater may bebent, dog-legged, and spiraled without causing the outer conductor andthe inner conductor to electrically short to each other. Deformationtolerance may be important if the wellbore is likely to undergosubstantial deformation during heating of the formation.

In certain embodiments, an outermost layer of the temperature limitedheater (for example, the outer conductor) is chosen for corrosionresistance, yield strength, and/or creep resistance. In one embodiment,austenitic (non-ferromagnetic) stainless steels such as 201, 304H, 347H,347HH, 316H, 310H, 347HP, NF709 (Nippon Steel Corp., Japan) stainlesssteels, or combinations thereof may be used in the outer conductor. Theoutermost layer may also include a clad conductor. For example, acorrosion resistant alloy such as 800H or 347H stainless steel may beclad for corrosion protection over a ferromagnetic carbon steel tubular.If high temperature strength is not required, the outermost layer may beconstructed from ferromagnetic metal with good corrosion resistance suchas one of the ferritic stainless steels. In one embodiment, a ferriticalloy of 82.3% by weight iron with 17.7% by weight chromium (Curietemperature of 678° C.) provides desired corrosion resistance.

The Metals Handbook, vol. 8, page 291 (American Society of Materials(ASM)) includes a graph of Curie temperature of iron-chromium alloysversus the amount of chromium in the alloys. In some temperature limitedheater embodiments, a separate support rod or tubular (made from 347Hstainless steel) is coupled to the temperature limited heater made froman iron-chromium alloy to provide yield strength and/or creepresistance. In certain embodiments, the support material and/or theferromagnetic material is selected to provide a 100,000 hourcreep-rupture strength of at least 20.7 MPa at 650° C. In someembodiments, the 100,000 hour creep-rupture strength is at least 13.8MPa at 650° C. or at least 6.9 MPa at 650° C. For example, 347H steelhas a favorable creep-rupture strength at or above 650° C. In someembodiments, the 100,000 hour creep-rupture strength ranges from 6.9 MPato 41.3 MPa or more for longer heaters and/or higher earth or fluidstresses.

In temperature limited heater embodiments with both an innerferromagnetic conductor and an outer ferromagnetic conductor, the skineffect current path occurs on the outside of the inner conductor and onthe inside of the outer conductor. Thus, the outside of the outerconductor may be clad with the corrosion resistant alloy, such asstainless steel, without affecting the skin effect current path on theinside of the outer conductor.

A ferromagnetic conductor with a thickness of at least the skin depth atthe Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature rangeallows a substantial decrease in resistance of the ferromagneticmaterial as the skin depth increases sharply near the Curie temperatureand/or the phase transformation temperature range. In certainembodiments when the ferromagnetic conductor is not clad with a highlyconducting material such as copper, the thickness of the conductor maybe 1.5 times the skin depth near the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range, 3 times the skin depth near the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range, or even10 or more times the skin depth near the Curie temperature and/or thephase transformation temperature range. If the ferromagnetic conductoris clad with copper, thickness of the ferromagnetic conductor may besubstantially the same as the skin depth near the Curie temperatureand/or the phase transformation temperature range. In some embodiments,the ferromagnetic conductor clad with copper has a thickness of at leastthree-fourths of the skin depth near the Curie temperature and/or thephase transformation temperature range.

In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater includes acomposite conductor with a ferromagnetic tubular and anon-ferromagnetic, high electrical conductivity core. Thenon-ferromagnetic, high electrical conductivity core reduces a requireddiameter of the conductor. For example, the conductor may be composite1.19 cm diameter conductor with a core of 0.575 cm diameter copper cladwith a 0.298 cm thickness of ferritic stainless steel or carbon steelsurrounding the core. The core or non-ferromagnetic conductor may becopper or copper alloy. The core or non-ferromagnetic conductor may alsobe made of other metals that exhibit low electrical resistivity andrelative magnetic permeabilities near 1 (for example, substantiallynon-ferromagnetic materials such as aluminum and aluminum alloys,phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, and/or brass). A composite conductorallows the electrical resistance of the temperature limited heater todecrease more steeply near the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range. As the skin depth increases near theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range toinclude the copper core, the electrical resistance decreases verysharply.

The composite conductor may increase the conductivity of the temperaturelimited heater and/or allow the heater to operate at lower voltages. Inan embodiment, the composite conductor exhibits a relatively flatresistance versus temperature profile at temperatures below a regionnear the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperaturerange of the ferromagnetic conductor of the composite conductor. In someembodiments, the temperature limited heater exhibits a relatively flatresistance versus temperature profile between 100° C. and 750° C. orbetween 300° C. and 600° C. The relatively flat resistance versustemperature profile may also be exhibited in other temperature ranges byadjusting, for example, materials and/or the configuration of materialsin the temperature limited heater. In certain embodiments, the relativethickness of each material in the composite conductor is selected toproduce a desired resistivity versus temperature profile for thetemperature limited heater.

In certain embodiments, the relative thickness of each material in acomposite conductor is selected to produce a desired resistivity versustemperature profile for a temperature limited heater. In an embodiment,the composite conductor is an inner conductor surrounded by 0.127 cmthick magnesium oxide powder as an insulator. The outer conductor may be304H stainless steel with a wall thickness of 0.127 cm. The outsidediameter of the heater may be about 1.65 cm.

A composite conductor (for example, a composite inner conductor or acomposite outer conductor) may be manufactured by methods including, butnot limited to, coextrusion, roll forming, tight fit tubing (forexample, cooling the inner member and heating the outer member, theninserting the inner member in the outer member, followed by a drawingoperation and/or allowing the system to cool), explosive orelectromagnetic cladding, arc overlay welding, longitudinal stripwelding, plasma powder welding, billet coextrusion, electroplating,drawing, sputtering, plasma deposition, coextrusion casting, magneticforming, molten cylinder casting (of inner core material inside theouter or vice versa), insertion followed by welding or high temperaturebraising, shielded active gas welding (SAG), and/or insertion of aninner pipe in an outer pipe followed by mechanical expansion of theinner pipe by hydroforming or use of a pig to expand and swage the innerpipe against the outer pipe. In some embodiments, a ferromagneticconductor is braided over a non-ferromagnetic conductor. In certainembodiments, composite conductors are formed using methods similar tothose used for cladding (for example, cladding copper to steel). Ametallurgical bond between copper cladding and base ferromagneticmaterial may be advantageous. Composite conductors produced by acoextrusion process that forms a good metallurgical bond (for example, agood bond between copper and 446 stainless steel) may be provided byAnomet Products, Inc. (Shrewsbury, Mass., U.S.A.).

In certain embodiments, it may be desirable to form a compositeconductor by various methods including longitudinal strip welding. Insome embodiments, however, it may be difficult to use longitudinal stripwelding techniques if the desired thickness of a layer of a firstmaterial has such a large thickness, in relation to the inner core/layeronto which such layer is to be bended, that it does not effectivelyand/or efficiently bend around an inner core or layer that is made of asecond material. In such circumstances, it may be beneficial to usemultiple thinner layers of the first material in the longitudinal stripwelding process such that the multiple thinner layers can more readilybe employed in a longitudinal strip welding process and coupled togetherto form a composite of the first material with the desired thickness.So, for example, a first layer of the first material may be bent aroundan inner core or layer of second material, and then a second layer ofthe first material may be bent around the first layer of the firstmaterial, with the thicknesses of the first and second layers being suchthat the first and second layers will readily bend around the inner coreor layer in a longitudinal strip welding process. Thus, the two layersof the first material may together form the total desired thickness ofthe first material.

FIGS. 12-29 depict various embodiments of temperature limited heaters.One or more features of an embodiment of the temperature limited heaterdepicted in any of these figures may be combined with one or morefeatures of other embodiments of temperature limited heaters depicted inthese figures. In certain embodiments described herein, temperaturelimited heaters are dimensioned to operate at a frequency of 60 Hz AC.It is to be understood that dimensions of the temperature limited heatermay be adjusted from those described herein to operate in a similarmanner at other AC frequencies or with modulated DC current.

The temperature limited heaters may be used in conductor-in-conduitheaters. In some embodiments of conductor-in-conduit heaters, themajority of the resistive heat is generated in the conductor, and theheat radiatively, conductively and/or convectively transfers to theconduit. In some embodiments of conductor-in-conduit heaters, themajority of the resistive heat is generated in the conduit.

FIG. 12 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of thetemperature limited heater with an outer conductor having aferromagnetic section and a non-ferromagnetic section. FIGS. 13 and 14depict transverse cross-sectional views of the embodiment shown in FIG.12. In one embodiment, ferromagnetic section 358 is used to provide heatto hydrocarbon layers in the formation. Non-ferromagnetic section 360 isused in the overburden of the formation. Non-ferromagnetic section 360provides little or no heat to the overburden, thus inhibiting heatlosses in the overburden and improving heater efficiency. Ferromagneticsection 358 includes a ferromagnetic material such as 409 stainlesssteel or 410 stainless steel. Ferromagnetic section 358 has a thicknessof 0.3 cm. Non-ferromagnetic section 360 is copper with a thickness of0.3 cm. Inner conductor 362 is copper. Inner conductor 362 has adiameter of 0.9 cm. Electrical insulator 364 is silicon nitride, boronnitride, magnesium oxide powder, or another suitable insulator material.Electrical insulator 364 has a thickness of 0.1 cm to 0.3 cm.

FIG. 15 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of atemperature limited heater with an outer conductor having aferromagnetic section and a non-ferromagnetic section placed inside asheath. FIGS. 16, 17, and 18 depict transverse cross-sectional views ofthe embodiment shown in FIG. 15. Ferromagnetic section 358 is 410stainless steel with a thickness of 0.6 cm. Non-ferromagnetic section360 is copper with a thickness of 0.6 cm. Inner conductor 362 is copperwith a diameter of 0.9 cm. Outer conductor 366 includes ferromagneticmaterial. Outer conductor 366 provides some heat in the overburdensection of the heater. Providing some heat in the overburden inhibitscondensation or refluxing of fluids in the overburden. Outer conductor366 is 409, 410, or 446 stainless steel with an outer diameter of 3.0 cmand a thickness of 0.6 cm. Electrical insulator 364 includes compactedmagnesium oxide powder with a thickness of 0.3 cm. In some embodiments,electrical insulator 364 includes silicon nitride, boron nitride, orhexagonal type boron nitride. Conductive section 368 may couple innerconductor 362 with ferromagnetic section 358 and/or outer conductor 366.

FIG. 19A and FIG. 19B depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater with a ferromagnetic outerconductor. The outer conductor is clad with a conductive layer and acorrosion resistant alloy. Inner conductor 362 is copper. Electricalinsulator 364 is silicon nitride, boron nitride, or magnesium oxide.Outer conductor 366 is a 1″ Schedule 80 446 stainless steel pipe. Outerconductor 366 is coupled to jacket 370. Jacket 370 is made fromcorrosion resistant material such as 347H stainless steel. In anembodiment, conductive layer 372 is placed between outer conductor 366and jacket 370. Conductive layer 372 is a copper layer. Heat is producedprimarily in outer conductor 366, resulting in a small temperaturedifferential across electrical insulator 364. Conductive layer 372allows a sharp decrease in the resistance of outer conductor 366 as theouter conductor approaches the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range. Jacket 370 provides protection fromcorrosive fluids in the wellbore.

In certain embodiments, inner conductor 362 includes a core of copper oranother non-ferromagnetic conductor surrounded by ferromagnetic material(for example, a low Curie temperature material such as Invar 36). Incertain embodiments, the copper core has an outer diameter between about0.125″ and about 0.375″ (for example, about 0.5″) and the ferromagneticmaterial has an outer diameter between about 0.625″ and about 1″ (forexample, about 0.75″). The copper core may increase the turndown ratioof the heater and/or reduce the thickness needed in the ferromagneticmaterial, which may allow a lower cost heater to be made. Electricalinsulator 364 may be magnesium oxide with an outer diameter betweenabout 1″ and about 1.2″ (for example, about 1.11″). Outer conductor 366may include non-ferromagnetic electrically conductive material with highmechanical strength such as 825 stainless steel. Outer conductor 366 mayhave an outer diameter between about 1.2″ and about 1.5″ (for example,about 1.33″). In certain embodiments, inner conductor 362 is a forwardcurrent path and outer conductor 366 is a return current path.Conductive layer 372 may include copper or another non-ferromagneticmaterial with an outer diameter between about 1.3″ and about 1.4″ (forexample, about 1.384″). Conductive layer 372 may decrease the resistanceof the return current path (to reduce the heat output of the return pathsuch that little or no heat is generated in the return path) and/orincrease the turndown ratio of the heater. Conductive layer 372 mayreduce the thickness needed in outer conductor 366 and/or jacket 370,which may allow a lower cost heater to be made. Jacket 370 may includeferromagnetic material such as carbon steel or 410 stainless steel withan outer diameter between about 1.6″ and about 1.8″ (for example, about1.684″). Jacket 370 may have a thickness of at least 2 times the skindepth of the ferromagnetic material in the jacket. Jacket 370 mayprovide protection from corrosive fluids in the wellbore. In someembodiments, inner conductor 362, electrical insulator 364, and outerconductor 366 are formed as composite heater (for example, an insulatedconductor heater) and conductive layer 372 and jacket 370 are formedaround (for example, wrapped) the composite heater and welded togetherto form the larger heater embodiment described herein.

In certain embodiments, jacket 370 includes ferromagnetic material thathas a higher Curie temperature than ferromagnetic material in innerconductor 362. Such a temperature limited heater may “contain” currentsuch that the current does not easily flow from the heater to thesurrounding formation and/or to any surrounding fluids (for example,production fluids, formation fluids, brine, groundwater, or formationwater). In this embodiment, a majority of the current flows throughinner conductor 362 until the Curie temperature of the ferromagneticmaterial in the inner conductor is reached. After the Curie temperatureof ferromagnetic material in inner conductor 362 is reached, a majorityof the current flows through the core of copper in the inner conductor.The ferromagnetic properties of jacket 370 inhibit the current fromflowing outside the jacket and “contain” the current. Such a heater maybe used in lower temperature applications where fluids are present suchas providing heat in a production wellbore to increase oil production.

In some embodiments, the conductor (for example, an inner conductor, anouter conductor, or a ferromagnetic conductor) is the compositeconductor that includes two or more different materials. In certainembodiments, the composite conductor includes two or more ferromagneticmaterials. In some embodiments, the composite ferromagnetic conductorincludes two or more radially disposed materials. In certainembodiments, the composite conductor includes a ferromagnetic conductorand a non-ferromagnetic conductor. In some embodiments, the compositeconductor includes the ferromagnetic conductor placed over anon-ferromagnetic core. Two or more materials may be used to obtain arelatively flat electrical resistivity versus temperature profile in atemperature region below the Curie temperature, and/or the phasetransformation temperature range, and/or a sharp decrease (a highturndown ratio) in the electrical resistivity at or near the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. In somecases, two or more materials are used to provide more than one Curietemperature and/or phase transformation temperature range for thetemperature limited heater.

The composite electrical conductor may be used as the conductor in anyelectrical heater embodiment described herein. For example, thecomposite conductor may be used as the conductor in aconductor-in-conduit heater or an insulated conductor heater. In certainembodiments, the composite conductor may be coupled to a support membersuch as a support conductor. The support member may be used to providesupport to the composite conductor so that the composite conductor isnot relied upon for strength at or near the Curie temperature and/or thephase transformation temperature range. The support member may be usefulfor heaters of lengths of at least 100 m. The support member may be anon-ferromagnetic member that has good high temperature creep strength.Examples of materials that are used for a support member include, butare not limited to, Haynes® 625 alloy and Haynes® HR120® alloy (HaynesInternational, Kokomo, Ind., U.S.A.), NF709, Incoloy® 800H alloy and347HP alloy (Allegheny Ludlum Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.A.). In someembodiments, materials in a composite conductor are directly coupled(for example, brazed, metallurgically bonded, or swaged) to each otherand/or the support member. Using a support member may reduce the needfor the ferromagnetic member to provide support for the temperaturelimited heater, especially at or near the Curie temperature and/or thephase transformation temperature range. Thus, the temperature limitedheater may be designed with more flexibility in the selection offerromagnetic materials.

FIG. 20 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of thecomposite conductor with the support member. Core 374 is surrounded byferromagnetic conductor 376 and support member 378. In some embodiments,core 374, ferromagnetic conductor 376, and support member 378 aredirectly coupled (for example, brazed together or metallurgically bondedtogether). In one embodiment, core 374 is copper, ferromagneticconductor 376 is 446 stainless steel, and support member 378 is 347Halloy. In certain embodiments, support member 378 is a Schedule 80 pipe.Support member 378 surrounds the composite conductor havingferromagnetic conductor 376 and core 374. Ferromagnetic conductor 376and core 374 may be joined to form the composite conductor by, forexample, a coextrusion process. For example, the composite conductor isa 1.9 cm outside diameter 446 stainless steel ferromagnetic conductorsurrounding a 0.95 cm diameter copper core.

In certain embodiments, the diameter of core 374 is adjusted relative toa constant outside diameter of ferromagnetic conductor 376 to adjust theturndown ratio of the temperature limited heater. For example, thediameter of core 374 may be increased to 1.14 cm while maintaining theoutside diameter of ferromagnetic conductor 376 at 1.9 cm to increasethe turndown ratio of the heater.

FIG. 21 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of thecomposite conductor with support member 378 separating the conductors.In one embodiment, core 374 is copper with a diameter of 0.95 cm,support member 378 is 347H alloy with an outside diameter of 1.9 cm, andferromagnetic conductor 376 is 446 stainless steel with an outsidediameter of 2.7 cm. The support member depicted in FIG. 21 has a lowercreep strength relative to the support members depicted in FIG. 20.

In certain embodiments, support member 378 is located inside thecomposite conductor. FIG. 22 depicts a cross-sectional representation ofan embodiment of the composite conductor surrounding support member 378.Support member 378 is made of 347H alloy. Inner conductor 362 is copper.Ferromagnetic conductor 376 is 446 stainless steel. In one embodiment,support member 378 is 1.25 cm diameter 347H alloy, inner conductor 362is 1.9 cm outside diameter copper, and ferromagnetic conductor 376 is2.7 cm outside diameter 446 stainless steel. The turndown ratio ishigher than the turndown ratio for the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 20,21, and 23 for the same outside diameter, but the creep strength islower.

In some embodiments, the thickness of inner conductor 362, which iscopper, is reduced and the thickness of support member 378 is increasedto increase the creep strength at the expense of reduced turndown ratio.For example, the diameter of support member 378 is increased to 1.6 cmwhile maintaining the outside diameter of inner conductor 362 at 1.9 cmto reduce the thickness of the conduit. This reduction in thickness ofinner conductor 362 results in a decreased turndown ratio relative tothe thicker inner conductor embodiment but an increased creep strength.

FIG. 23 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of thecomposite conductor surrounding support member 378. In one embodiment,support member 378 is 347H alloy with a 0.63 cm diameter center hole. Insome embodiments, support member 378 is a preformed conduit. In certainembodiments, support member 378 is formed by having a dissolvablematerial (for example, copper dissolvable by nitric acid) located insidethe support member during formation of the composite conductor. Thedissolvable material is dissolved to form the hole after the conductoris assembled. In an embodiment, support member 378 is 347H alloy with aninside diameter of 0.63 cm and an outside diameter of 1.6 cm, innerconductor 362 is copper with an outside diameter of 1.8 cm, andferromagnetic conductor 376 is 446 stainless steel with an outsidediameter of 2.7 cm.

In certain embodiments, the composite electrical conductor is used asthe conductor in the conductor-in-conduit heater. For example, thecomposite electrical conductor may be used as conductor 380 in FIG. 24.

FIG. 24 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of theconductor-in-conduit heater. Conductor 380 is disposed in conduit 382.Conductor 380 is a rod or conduit of electrically conductive material.Low resistance sections 384 are present at both ends of conductor 380 togenerate less heating in these sections. Low resistance section 384 isformed by having a greater cross-sectional area of conductor 380 in thatsection, or the sections are made of material having less resistance. Incertain embodiments, low resistance section 384 includes a lowresistance conductor coupled to conductor 380.

Conduit 382 is made of an electrically conductive material. Conduit 382is disposed in opening 386 in hydrocarbon layer 388. Opening 386 has adiameter that accommodates conduit 382.

Conductor 380 may be centered in conduit 382 by centralizers 390.Centralizers 390 electrically isolate conductor 380 from conduit 382.Centralizers 390 inhibit movement and properly locate conductor 380 inconduit 382. Centralizers 390 are made of ceramic material or acombination of ceramic and metallic materials. Centralizers 390 inhibitdeformation of conductor 380 in conduit 382. Centralizers 390 aretouching or spaced at intervals between approximately 0.1 m (meters) andapproximately 3 m or more along conductor 380.

A second low resistance section 384 of conductor 380 may coupleconductor 380 to wellhead 392. Electrical current may be applied toconductor 380 from power cable 394 through low resistance section 384 ofconductor 380. Electrical current passes from conductor 380 throughsliding connector 396 to conduit 382. Conduit 382 may be electricallyinsulated from overburden casing 398 and from wellhead 392 to returnelectrical current to power cable 394. Heat may be generated inconductor 380 and conduit 382. The generated heat may radiate in conduit382 and opening 386 to heat at least a portion of hydrocarbon layer 388.

Overburden casing 398 may be disposed in overburden 400. In someembodiments, overburden casing 398 is surrounded by materials (forexample, reinforcing material and/or cement) that inhibit heating ofoverburden 400. Low resistance section 384 of conductor 380 may beplaced in overburden casing 398. Low resistance section 384 of conductor380 is made of, for example, carbon steel. Low resistance section 384 ofconductor 380 may be centralized in overburden casing 398 usingcentralizers 390. Centralizers 390 are spaced at intervals ofapproximately 6 m to approximately 12 m or, for example, approximately 9m along low resistance section 384 of conductor 380. In a heaterembodiment, low resistance sections 384 are coupled to conductor 380 byone or more welds. In other heater embodiments, low resistance sectionsare threaded, threaded and welded, or otherwise coupled to theconductor. Low resistance section 384 generates little or no heat inoverburden casing 398. Packing 402 may be placed between overburdencasing 398 and opening 386. Packing 402 may be used as a cap at thejunction of overburden 400 and hydrocarbon layer 388 to allow filling ofmaterials in the annulus between overburden casing 398 and opening 386.In some embodiments, packing 402 inhibits fluid from flowing fromopening 386 to surface 404.

FIG. 25 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aremovable conductor-in-conduit heat source. Conduit 382 may be placed inopening 386 through overburden 400 such that a gap remains between theconduit and overburden casing 398. Fluids may be removed from opening386 through the gap between conduit 382 and overburden casing 398.Fluids may be removed from the gap through conduit 406. Conduit 382 andcomponents of the heat source included in the conduit that are coupledto wellhead 392 may be removed from opening 386 as a single unit. Theheat source may be removed as a single unit to be repaired, replaced,and/or used in another portion of the formation.

For a temperature limited heater in which the ferromagnetic conductorprovides a majority of the resistive heat output below the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range, amajority of the current flows through material with highly non-linearfunctions of magnetic field (H) versus magnetic induction (B). Thesenon-linear functions may cause strong inductive effects and distortionthat lead to decreased power factor in the temperature limited heater attemperatures below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range. These effects may render the electrical power supplyto the temperature limited heater difficult to control and may result inadditional current flow through surface and/or overburden power supplyconductors. Expensive and/or difficult to implement control systems suchas variable capacitors or modulated power supplies may be used tocompensate for these effects and to control temperature limited heaterswhere the majority of the resistive heat output is provided by currentflow through the ferromagnetic material.

In certain temperature limited heater embodiments, the ferromagneticconductor confines a majority of the flow of electrical current to anelectrical conductor coupled to the ferromagnetic conductor when thetemperature limited heater is below or near the Curie temperature and/orthe phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagneticconductor. The electrical conductor may be a sheath, jacket, supportmember, corrosion resistant member, or other electrically resistivemember. In some embodiments, the ferromagnetic conductor confines amajority of the flow of electrical current to the electrical conductorpositioned between an outermost layer and the ferromagnetic conductor.The ferromagnetic conductor is located in the cross section of thetemperature limited heater such that the magnetic properties of theferromagnetic conductor at or below the Curie temperature and/or thephase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductorconfine the majority of the flow of electrical current to the electricalconductor. The majority of the flow of electrical current is confined tothe electrical conductor due to the skin effect of the ferromagneticconductor. Thus, the majority of the current is flowing through materialwith substantially linear resistive properties throughout most of theoperating range of the heater.

In certain embodiments, the ferromagnetic conductor and the electricalconductor are located in the cross section of the temperature limitedheater so that the skin effect of the ferromagnetic material limits thepenetration depth of electrical current in the electrical conductor andthe ferromagnetic conductor at temperatures below the Curie temperatureand/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagneticconductor. Thus, the electrical conductor provides a majority of theelectrically resistive heat output of the temperature limited heater attemperatures up to a temperature at or near the Curie temperature and/orthe phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagneticconductor. In certain embodiments, the dimensions of the electricalconductor may be chosen to provide desired heat output characteristics.

Because the majority of the current flows through the electricalconductor below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range, the temperature limited heater has a resistanceversus temperature profile that at least partially reflects theresistance versus temperature profile of the material in the electricalconductor. Thus, the resistance versus temperature profile of thetemperature limited heater is substantially linear below the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of theferromagnetic conductor if the material in the electrical conductor hasa substantially linear resistance versus temperature profile. Theresistance of the temperature limited heater has little or no dependenceon the current flowing through the heater until the temperature nearsthe Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range.The majority of the current flows in the electrical conductor ratherthan the ferromagnetic conductor below the Curie temperature and/or thephase transformation temperature range.

Resistance versus temperature profiles for temperature limited heatersin which the majority of the current flows in the electrical conductoralso tend to exhibit sharper reductions in resistance near or at theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range ofthe ferromagnetic conductor. The sharper reductions in resistance nearor at the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperaturerange are easier to control than more gradual resistance reductions nearthe Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature rangebecause little current is flowing through the ferromagnetic material.

In certain embodiments, the material and/or the dimensions of thematerial in the electrical conductor are selected so that thetemperature limited heater has a desired resistance versus temperatureprofile below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor.

Temperature limited heaters in which the majority of the current flowsin the electrical conductor rather than the ferromagnetic conductorbelow the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperaturerange are easier to predict and/or control. Behavior of temperaturelimited heaters in which the majority of the current flows in theelectrical conductor rather than the ferromagnetic conductor below theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range maybe predicted by, for example, the resistance versus temperature profileand/or the power factor versus temperature profile. Resistance versustemperature profiles and/or power factor versus temperature profiles maybe assessed or predicted by, for example, experimental measurements thatassess the behavior of the temperature limited heater, analyticalequations that assess or predict the behavior of the temperature limitedheater, and/or simulations that assess or predict the behavior of thetemperature limited heater.

In certain embodiments, assessed or predicted behavior of thetemperature limited heater is used to control the temperature limitedheater. The temperature limited heater may be controlled based onmeasurements (assessments) of the resistance and/or the power factorduring operation of the heater. In some embodiments, the power, orcurrent, supplied to the temperature limited heater is controlled basedon assessment of the resistance and/or the power factor of the heaterduring operation of the heater and the comparison of this assessmentversus the predicted behavior of the heater. In certain embodiments, thetemperature limited heater is controlled without measurement of thetemperature of the heater or a temperature near the heater. Controllingthe temperature limited heater without temperature measurementeliminates operating costs associated with downhole temperaturemeasurement. Controlling the temperature limited heater based onassessment of the resistance and/or the power factor of the heater alsoreduces the time for making adjustments in the power or current suppliedto the heater compared to controlling the heater based on measuredtemperature.

As the temperature of the temperature limited heater approaches orexceeds the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor, reduction in theferromagnetic properties of the ferromagnetic conductor allowselectrical current to flow through a greater portion of the electricallyconducting cross section of the temperature limited heater. Thus, theelectrical resistance of the temperature limited heater is reduced andthe temperature limited heater automatically provides reduced heatoutput at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. In certainembodiments, a highly electrically conductive member is coupled to theferromagnetic conductor and the electrical conductor to reduce theelectrical resistance of the temperature limited heater at or above theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range ofthe ferromagnetic conductor. The highly electrically conductive membermay be an inner conductor, a core, or another conductive member ofcopper, aluminum, nickel, or alloys thereof.

The ferromagnetic conductor that confines the majority of the flow ofelectrical current to the electrical conductor at temperatures below theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range mayhave a relatively small cross section compared to the ferromagneticconductor in temperature limited heaters that use the ferromagneticconductor to provide the majority of resistive heat output up to or nearthe Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range.A temperature limited heater that uses the electrical conductor toprovide a majority of the resistive heat output below the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range has lowmagnetic inductance at temperatures below the Curie temperature and/orthe phase transformation temperature range because less current isflowing through the ferromagnetic conductor as compared to thetemperature limited heater where the majority of the resistive heatoutput below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range is provided by the ferromagnetic material. Magneticfield (H) at radius (r) of the ferromagnetic conductor is proportionalto the current (I) flowing through the ferromagnetic conductor and thecore divided by the radius, or:

H∝I/r.  (EQN. 4)

Since only a portion of the current flows through the ferromagneticconductor for a temperature limited heater that uses the outer conductorto provide a majority of the resistive heat output below the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range, themagnetic field of the temperature limited heater may be significantlysmaller than the magnetic field of the temperature limited heater wherethe majority of the current flows through the ferromagnetic material.The relative magnetic permeability (μ) may be large for small magneticfields.

The skin depth (δ) of the ferromagnetic conductor is inverselyproportional to the square root of the relative magnetic permeability(μ):

δ∝(1/μ)^(1/2).  (EQN. 5)

Increasing the relative magnetic permeability decreases the skin depthof the ferromagnetic conductor. However, because only a portion of thecurrent flows through the ferromagnetic conductor for temperatures belowthe Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range,the radius (or thickness) of the ferromagnetic conductor may bedecreased for ferromagnetic materials with large relative magneticpermeabilities to compensate for the decreased skin depth while stillallowing the skin effect to limit the penetration depth of theelectrical current to the electrical conductor at temperatures below theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range ofthe ferromagnetic conductor. The radius (thickness) of the ferromagneticconductor may be between 0.3 mm and 8 mm, between 0.3 mm and 2 mm, orbetween 2 mm and 4 mm depending on the relative magnetic permeability ofthe ferromagnetic conductor. Decreasing the thickness of theferromagnetic conductor decreases costs of manufacturing the temperaturelimited heater, as the cost of ferromagnetic material tends to be asignificant portion of the cost of the temperature limited heater.Increasing the relative magnetic permeability of the ferromagneticconductor provides a higher turndown ratio and a sharper decrease inelectrical resistance for the temperature limited heater at or near theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range ofthe ferromagnetic conductor.

Ferromagnetic materials (such as purified iron or iron-cobalt alloys)with high relative magnetic permeabilities (for example, at least 200,at least 1000, at least 1×10⁴, or at least 1×10⁵) and/or high Curietemperatures (for example, at least 600° C., at least 700° C., or atleast 800° C.) tend to have less corrosion resistance and/or lessmechanical strength at high temperatures. The electrical conductor mayprovide corrosion resistance and/or high mechanical strength at hightemperatures for the temperature limited heater. Thus, the ferromagneticconductor may be chosen primarily for its ferromagnetic properties.

Confining the majority of the flow of electrical current to theelectrical conductor below the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor reducesvariations in the power factor. Because only a portion of the electricalcurrent flows through the ferromagnetic conductor below the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range, thenon-linear ferromagnetic properties of the ferromagnetic conductor havelittle or no effect on the power factor of the temperature limitedheater, except at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range. Even at or near the Curie temperatureand/or the phase transformation temperature range, the effect on thepower factor is reduced compared to temperature limited heaters in whichthe ferromagnetic conductor provides a majority of the resistive heatoutput below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range. Thus, there is less or no need for externalcompensation (for example, variable capacitors or waveform modification)to adjust for changes in the inductive load of the temperature limitedheater to maintain a relatively high power factor.

In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater, which confinesthe majority of the flow of electrical current to the electricalconductor below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor, maintains the powerfactor above 0.85, above 0.9, or above 0.95 during use of the heater.Any reduction in the power factor occurs only in sections of thetemperature limited heater at temperatures near the Curie temperatureand/or the phase transformation temperature range. Most sections of thetemperature limited heater are typically not at or near the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range duringuse. These sections have a high power factor that approaches 1.0. Thepower factor for the entire temperature limited heater is maintainedabove 0.85, above 0.9, or above 0.95 during use of the heater even ifsome sections of the heater have power factors below 0.85.

Maintaining high power factors allows for less expensive power suppliesand/or control devices such as solid state power supplies or SCRs(silicon controlled rectifiers). These devices may fail to operateproperly if the power factor varies by too large an amount because ofinductive loads. With the power factors maintained at high values;however, these devices may be used to provide power to the temperaturelimited heater. Solid state power supplies have the advantage ofallowing fine tuning and controlled adjustment of the power supplied tothe temperature limited heater.

In some embodiments, transformers are used to provide power to thetemperature limited heater. Multiple voltage taps may be made into thetransformer to provide power to the temperature limited heater. Multiplevoltage taps allow the current supplied to switch back and forth betweenthe multiple voltages. This maintains the current within a range boundby the multiple voltage taps.

The highly electrically conductive member, or inner conductor, increasesthe turndown ratio of the temperature limited heater. In certainembodiments, thickness of the highly electrically conductive member isincreased to increase the turndown ratio of the temperature limitedheater. In some embodiments, the thickness of the electrical conductoris reduced to increase the turndown ratio of the temperature limitedheater. In certain embodiments, the turndown ratio of the temperaturelimited heater is between 1.1 and 10, between 2 and 8, or between 3 and6 (for example, the turndown ratio is at least 1.1, at least 2, or atleast 3).

FIG. 26 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater in whichthe support member provides a majority of the heat output below theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range ofthe ferromagnetic conductor. Core 374 is an inner conductor of thetemperature limited heater. In certain embodiments, core 374 is a highlyelectrically conductive material such as copper or aluminum. In someembodiments, core 374 is a copper alloy that provides mechanicalstrength and good electrically conductivity such as a dispersionstrengthened copper. In one embodiment, core 374 is Glidcop® (SCM MetalProducts, Inc., Research Triangle Park, N.C., U.S.A.). Ferromagneticconductor 376 is a thin layer of ferromagnetic material betweenelectrical conductor 408 and core 374. In certain embodiments,electrical conductor 408 is also support member 378. In certainembodiments, ferromagnetic conductor 376 is iron or an iron alloy. Insome embodiments, ferromagnetic conductor 376 includes ferromagneticmaterial with a high relative magnetic permeability. For example,ferromagnetic conductor 376 may be purified iron such as Armco ingotiron (AK Steel Ltd., United Kingdom). Iron with some impuritiestypically has a relative magnetic permeability on the order of 400.Purifying the iron by annealing the iron in hydrogen gas (H₂) at 1450°C. increases the relative magnetic permeability of the iron. Increasingthe relative magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic conductor 376 allowsthe thickness of the ferromagnetic conductor to be reduced. For example,the thickness of unpurified iron may be approximately 4.5 mm while thethickness of the purified iron is approximately 0.76 mm.

In certain embodiments, electrical conductor 408 provides support forferromagnetic conductor 376 and the temperature limited heater.Electrical conductor 408 may be made of a material that provides goodmechanical strength at temperatures near or above the Curie temperatureand/or the phase transformation temperature range of ferromagneticconductor 376. In certain embodiments, electrical conductor 408 is acorrosion resistant member. Electrical conductor 408 (support member378) may provide support for ferromagnetic conductor 376 and corrosionresistance. Electrical conductor 408 is made from a material thatprovides desired electrically resistive heat output at temperatures upto and/or above the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range of ferromagnetic conductor 376.

In an embodiment, electrical conductor 408 is 347H stainless steel. Insome embodiments, electrical conductor 408 is another electricallyconductive, good mechanical strength, corrosion resistant material. Forexample, electrical conductor 408 may be 304H, 316H, 347HH, NF709,Incoloy® 800H alloy (Inco Alloys International, Huntington, W. Va.,U.S.A.), Haynes® HR120® alloy, or Inconel® 617 alloy.

In some embodiments, electrical conductor 408 (support member 378)includes different alloys in different portions of the temperaturelimited heater. For example, a lower portion of electrical conductor 408(support member 378) is 347H stainless steel and an upper portion of theelectrical conductor (support member) is NF709. In certain embodiments,different alloys are used in different portions of the electricalconductor (support member) to increase the mechanical strength of theelectrical conductor (support member) while maintaining desired heatingproperties for the temperature limited heater.

In some embodiments, ferromagnetic conductor 376 includes differentferromagnetic conductors in different portions of the temperaturelimited heater. Different ferromagnetic conductors may be used indifferent portions of the temperature limited heater to vary the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range and, thus,the maximum operating temperature in the different portions. In someembodiments, the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range in an upper portion of the temperature limited heateris lower than the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformationtemperature range in a lower portion of the heater. The lower Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range in theupper portion increases the creep-rupture strength lifetime in the upperportion of the heater.

In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 26, ferromagnetic conductor 376,electrical conductor 408, and core 374 are dimensioned so that the skindepth of the ferromagnetic conductor limits the penetration depth of themajority of the flow of electrical current to the support member whenthe temperature is below the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. Thus,electrical conductor 408 provides a majority of the electricallyresistive heat output of the temperature limited heater at temperaturesup to a temperature at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range of ferromagnetic conductor 376. Incertain embodiments, the temperature limited heater depicted in FIG. 26is smaller (for example, an outside diameter of 3 cm, 2.9 cm, 2.5 cm, orless) than other temperature limited heaters that do not use electricalconductor 408 to provide the majority of electrically resistive heatoutput. The temperature limited heater depicted in FIG. 26 may besmaller because ferromagnetic conductor 376 is thin as compared to thesize of the ferromagnetic conductor needed for a temperature limitedheater in which the majority of the resistive heat output is provided bythe ferromagnetic conductor.

In some embodiments, the support member and the corrosion resistantmember are different members in the temperature limited heater. FIGS. 27and 28 depict embodiments of temperature limited heaters in which thejacket provides a majority of the heat output below the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of theferromagnetic conductor. In these embodiments, electrical conductor 408is jacket 370. Electrical conductor 408, ferromagnetic conductor 376,support member 378, and core 374 (in FIG. 27) or inner conductor 362 (inFIG. 28) are dimensioned so that the skin depth of the ferromagneticconductor limits the penetration depth of the majority of the flow ofelectrical current to the thickness of the jacket. In certainembodiments, electrical conductor 408 is a material that is corrosionresistant and provides electrically resistive heat output below theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range offerromagnetic conductor 376. For example, electrical conductor 408 is825 stainless steel or 347H stainless steel. In some embodiments,electrical conductor 408 has a small thickness (for example, on theorder of 0.5 mm).

In FIG. 27, core 374 is highly electrically conductive material such ascopper or aluminum. Support member 378 is 347H stainless steel oranother material with good mechanical strength at or near the Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range offerromagnetic conductor 376.

In FIG. 28, support member 378 is the core of the temperature limitedheater and is 347H stainless steel or another material with goodmechanical strength at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range of ferromagnetic conductor 376. Innerconductor 362 is highly electrically conductive material such as copperor aluminum.

In some embodiments, a relatively thin conductive layer is used toprovide the majority of the electrically resistive heat output of thetemperature limited heater at temperatures up to a temperature at ornear the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperaturerange of the ferromagnetic conductor. Such a temperature limited heatermay be used as the heating member in an insulated conductor heater. Theheating member of the insulated conductor heater may be located inside asheath with an insulation layer between the sheath and the heatingmember.

FIGS. 29A and 29B depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of the insulated conductor heater with the temperaturelimited heater as the heating member. Insulated conductor 410 includescore 374, ferromagnetic conductor 376, inner conductor 362, electricalinsulator 364, and jacket 370. Core 374 is a copper core. Ferromagneticconductor 376 is, for example, iron or an iron alloy.

Inner conductor 362 is a relatively thin conductive layer ofnon-ferromagnetic material with a higher electrical conductivity thanferromagnetic conductor 376. In certain embodiments, inner conductor 362is copper. Inner conductor 362 may be a copper alloy. Copper alloystypically have a flatter resistance versus temperature profile than purecopper. A flatter resistance versus temperature profile may provide lessvariation in the heat output as a function of temperature up to theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. Insome embodiments, inner conductor 362 is copper with 6% by weight nickel(for example, CuNi6 or LOHM™). In some embodiments, inner conductor 362is CuNi10Fe1Mn alloy. Below the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range of ferromagnetic conductor 376, themagnetic properties of the ferromagnetic conductor confine the majorityof the flow of electrical current to inner conductor 362. Thus, innerconductor 362 provides the majority of the resistive heat output ofinsulated conductor 410 below the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range.

In certain embodiments, inner conductor 362 is dimensioned, along withcore 374 and ferromagnetic conductor 376, so that the inner conductorprovides a desired amount of heat output and a desired turndown ratio.For example, inner conductor 362 may have a cross-sectional area that isaround 2 or 3 times less than the cross-sectional area of core 374.Typically, inner conductor 362 has to have a relatively smallcross-sectional area to provide a desired heat output if the innerconductor is copper or copper alloy. In an embodiment with copper innerconductor 362, core 374 has a diameter of 0.66 cm, ferromagneticconductor 376 has an outside diameter of 0.91 cm, inner conductor 362has an outside diameter of 1.03 cm, electrical insulator 364 has anoutside diameter of 1.53 cm, and jacket 370 has an outside diameter of1.79 cm. In an embodiment with a CuNi6 inner conductor 362, core 374 hasa diameter of 0.66 cm, ferromagnetic conductor 376 has an outsidediameter of 0.91 cm, inner conductor 362 has an outside diameter of 1.12cm, electrical insulator 364 has an outside diameter of 1.63 cm, andjacket 370 has an outside diameter of 1.88 cm. Such insulated conductorsare typically smaller and cheaper to manufacture than insulatedconductors that do not use the thin inner conductor to provide themajority of heat output below the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range.

Electrical insulator 364 may be magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide, silicondioxide, beryllium oxide, boron nitride, silicon nitride, orcombinations thereof. In certain embodiments, electrical insulator 364is a compacted powder of magnesium oxide. In some embodiments,electrical insulator 364 includes beads of silicon nitride.

In certain embodiments, a small layer of material is placed betweenelectrical insulator 364 and inner conductor 362 to inhibit copper frommigrating into the electrical insulator at higher temperatures. Forexample, a small layer of nickel (for example, about 0.5 mm of nickel)may be placed between electrical insulator 364 and inner conductor 362.

Jacket 370 is made of a corrosion resistant material such as, but notlimited to, 347 stainless steel, 347H stainless steel, 446 stainlesssteel, or 825 stainless steel. In some embodiments, jacket 370 providessome mechanical strength for insulated conductor 410 at or above theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range offerromagnetic conductor 376. In certain embodiments, jacket 370 is notused to conduct electrical current.

In certain embodiments, a semiconductor layer is placed outside of thecore of an insulated conductor heater. The semiconductor layer may atleast partially surround the core. The semiconductor layer may belocated adjacent to the core (between the core and the insulation layer(electrical insulator)) or the semiconductor layer may be located in theinsulation layer. Placing the semiconductor layer in the insulatedconductor heater outside the core may mitigate electric fieldfluctuations in the heater and/or reduce the electric field strength inthe heater. Thus, a higher voltage may be applied to an insulatedconductor heater with the semiconductor layer that yields the samemaximum electric field strength between the core and the sheath asachieved with a lower voltage applied to an insulated conductor heaterwithout the semiconductor layer. Alternatively, a lower maximum fieldstrength results for the insulated conductor heater with thesemiconducting layer when the two heaters are energized to the samevoltage.

FIG. 30 depicts an embodiment of insulated conductor 410 withsemiconductor layer 1370 adjacent to and surrounding core 374 (on thesurface of the core). Insulated conductor 410 may be an insulatedconductor heater that provides resistive heat output. Electricalinsulator 364 and jacket (sheath) 370 surround semiconductor layer 1370and core 374. FIG. 31 depicts an embodiment of insulated conductor 410with semiconductor layer 1370 inside electrical insulator 364 andsurrounding core 374. Semiconductor layer 1370 may be, for example,BaTiO₃ or another suitable semiconducting material such as, but notlimited to, Ba_(x)Sr_(1-x)TiO₃, CaCu₃(TiO₃)₄, or La₂Ba₂CaZn₂Ti₃O₄. Incertain embodiments, core 374 is copper or a copper alloy (for example acopper-nickel alloy), electrical insulator 364 is magnesium oxide, andjacket 370 is stainless steel.

Semiconductor layer 1370 reduces the electric field strength outside ofcore 374. In addition, having semiconductor layer 1370 surrounding core374 may reduce or mitigate electric field fluctuations due to defects orirregularities in the surface of the core. Reducing the electric fieldstrength and/or mitigating electric field fluctuations may reducestresses on electrical insulator 364, reducing potential breakdown ofthe electrical insulator and increasing the operational lifetime of theheater.

In certain embodiments, semiconductor layer 1370 has a higher dielectricconstant than electrical insulator 364. In certain embodiments, theelectric field strength around the core is minimized by optimizing thedielectric constant of the semiconductor layer and the thickness of thesemiconductor layer. The dielectric constant of semiconductor layer 1370and/or electrical insulator 364 may be graded (vary with radial distancefrom the central axis of core 374) to optimize the effect on theelectric field. In some embodiments, multiple layers, each with adifferent dielectric constant (either semiconductor layers or electricalinsulator layers), are used to provide a desired grading.

For long vertical temperature limited heaters (for example, heaters atleast 300 m, at least 500 m, or at least 1 km in length), the hangingstress becomes important in the selection of materials for thetemperature limited heater. Without the proper selection of material,the support member may not have sufficient mechanical strength (forexample, creep-rupture strength) to support the weight of thetemperature limited heater at the operating temperatures of the heater.

In certain embodiments, materials for the support member are varied toincrease the maximum allowable hanging stress at operating temperaturesof the temperature limited heater and, thus, increase the maximumoperating temperature of the temperature limited heater. Altering thematerials of the support member affects the heat output of thetemperature limited heater below the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range because changing the materials changesthe resistance versus temperature profile of the support member. Incertain embodiments, the support member is made of more than onematerial along the length of the heater so that the temperature limitedheater maintains desired operating properties (for example, resistanceversus temperature profile below the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range) as much as possible while providingsufficient mechanical properties to support the heater. In someembodiments, transition sections are used between sections of the heaterto provide strength that compensates for the difference in temperaturebetween sections of the heater. In certain embodiments, one or moreportions of the temperature limited heater have varying outsidediameters and/or materials to provide desired properties for the heater.

For relatively long insulated conductor heaters (for example, heaters atleast 300 m, at least 500 m, or at least 1 km in length), the voltagedecreases to much smaller values (for example, less than 500 V) at ornear the ends of the heaters distal from the surface, where the voltageis much higher (for example, 3 kV or higher). Because the voltagesdecreases to smaller values along the length of the heater, thethickness of the insulation may also decrease along the length of theheater as less insulation is needed to inhibit electrical breakdown atlower voltages. Using less insulation may allow the portions of theinsulated conductor heater further from the surface to be thinner andresult in lower material costs.

In certain embodiments, the electrical insulator in an insulatedconductor heater tapers from a larger thickness at or near the surfaceto a smaller thickness at or near the end of the heater distal from thesurface. In some embodiments, the electrical insulator in an insulatedconductor heater tapers from a larger thickness at or near the junctionof the overburden section of the heater and the section of the heater ina hydrocarbon containing layer to a smaller thickness at or near the endof the heater distal from the surface. In some embodiments, thethickness of the electrical insulator continuously tapers from thelarger thickness to the smaller thickness along a length of theinsulated conductor heater.

In certain embodiments, the thickness of the insulated conductor heatertapers from a larger thickness to a smaller thickness because of thetapered thickness of the electrical insulator. The dimensions ofelectrical conductors (for example, the core and the jacket) may remainsubstantially constant along the length of the heater such that thetapered electrical insulator provides for the tapered thickness of theheater. FIG. 32 depicts an embodiment of a tapered portion of insulatedconductor 410. Core 374 and jacket 370 have substantially constantthicknesses while the thickness of electrical insulator 364 tapers. Thetapered thickness of electrical insulator 364 tapers the thickness ofinsulated conductor 410. Tapering only the electrical insulator may saveon manufacturing costs and/or material costs.

The electrical insulator may be tapered, for example, by using rollersto gradually shrink the size of the electrical insulator during anassembly process used to make the insulated conductor heater. Anotherpossible method for tapering the insulation is to use electricalinsulator blocks of gradually decreasing thickness along the length ofthe heater. Yet another possible method is to telescope or taper thethickness of individual electrical insulator blocks along the length ofthe heater.

The tapered insulated conductor heater with a thinner end portion at ornear the distal end of the heater allows a smaller electricaltermination to be used at the end of the heater. A smaller terminationallows the opening at the end of the heater to be smaller, which iseasier and/or less costly to form (drill). FIG. 33 depicts an embodimentof tapered insulated conductor 410 in opening 386. Insulated conductor410 tapers to smaller dimensions at or near the end of opening 386distal from the surface of the formation. The smaller end portion ofopening 386 allows termination 420 to be smaller than if there was notapering of the size of insulated conductor 410 and opening 386. In someembodiments, if the voltage reduces to a sufficiently low value at theend of the heater, it may be possible to have no termination at the endof the heater or allow the heater to ground to the formation.

In some embodiments, the thinner end portion of the tapered insulatedconductor heater allows the end portion of the heater to be looped intoa hairpin configuration. FIG. 34 depicts an embodiment of taperedinsulated conductor 410 in a hairpin configuration. Thus, the heater canreturn current to the surface and be terminated at the surface insteadof being terminated in the subsurface. In some embodiments, current isreturned to the surface through the jacket or sheath of the insulatedconductor heater. The core of the tapered insulated conductor heater isshorted to the jacket (sheath) at the end of the heater distal from thesurface so that current runs down the core and returns on the sheath.FIG. 35 depicts an embodiment of tapered insulated conductor 410 withcore 374 coupled (shorted) to jacket 370 with termination 420. Using thehairpin configuration and/or shorting the core and the jacket allows theinsulated conductor heater to be used as a single-phase heater withelectrical connections only at the surface.

In certain embodiments of temperature limited heaters, three temperaturelimited heaters are coupled together in a three-phase wye configuration.Coupling three temperature limited heaters together in the three-phasewye configuration lowers the current in each of the individualtemperature limited heaters because the current is split between thethree individual heaters. Lowering the current in each individualtemperature limited heater allows each heater to have a small diameter.The lower currents allow for higher relative magnetic permeabilities ineach of the individual temperature limited heaters and, thus, higherturndown ratios. In addition, there may be no return current path neededfor each of the individual temperature limited heaters. Thus, theturndown ratio remains higher for each of the individual temperaturelimited heaters than if each temperature limited heater had its ownreturn current path.

In the three-phase wye configuration, individual temperature limitedheaters may be coupled together by shorting the sheaths, jackets, orcanisters of each of the individual temperature limited heaters to theelectrically conductive sections (the conductors providing heat) attheir terminating ends (for example, the ends of the heaters at thebottom of a heater wellbore). In some embodiments, the sheaths, jackets,canisters, and/or electrically conductive sections are coupled to asupport member that supports the temperature limited heaters in thewellbore.

In certain embodiments, coupling multiple heaters (for example, mineralinsulated conductor heaters) to a single power source, such as atransformer, is advantageous. Coupling multiple heaters to a singletransformer may result in using fewer transformers to power heaters usedfor a treatment area as compared to using individual transformers foreach heater. Using fewer transformers reduces surface congestion andallows easier access to the heaters and surface components. Using fewertransformers reduces capital costs associated with providing power tothe treatment area. In some embodiments, at least 4, at least 5, atleast 10, at least 25 heaters, at least 35 heaters, or at least 45heaters are powered by a single transformer. Additionally, poweringmultiple heaters (in different heater wells) from the single transformermay reduce overburden losses because of reduced voltage and/or phasedifferences between each of the heater wells powered by the singletransformer. Powering multiple heaters from the single transformer mayinhibit current imbalances between the heaters because the heaters arecoupled to the single transformer.

To provide power to multiple heaters using the single transformer, thetransformer may have to provide power at higher voltages to carry thecurrent to each of the heaters effectively. In certain embodiments, theheaters are floating (ungrounded) heaters in the formation. Floating theheaters allows the heaters to operate at higher voltages. In someembodiments, the transformer provides power output of at least about 3kV, at least about 4 kV, at least about 5 kV, or at least about 6 kV.

FIG. 36 depicts a top view representation of heater 412 with threeinsulated conductors 410 in conduit 406. Heater 412 may be located in aheater well in the subsurface formation. Conduit 406 may be a sheath,jacket, or other enclosure around insulated conductors 410. Eachinsulated conductor 410 includes core 374, electrical insulator 364, andjacket 370. Insulated conductors 410 may be mineral insulated conductorswith core 374 being a copper alloy (for example, a copper-nickel alloysuch as Alloy 180), electrical insulator 364 being magnesium oxide, andjacket 370 being Incoloy® 825, copper, or stainless steel (for example347H stainless steel). In some embodiments, jacket 370 includes non-workhardenable metals so that the jacket is annealable.

In some embodiments, core 374 and/or jacket 370 include ferromagneticmaterials. In some embodiments, one or more insulated conductors 410 aretemperature limited heaters. In certain embodiments, the overburdenportion of insulated conductors 410 include high electrical conductivitymaterials in core 374 (for example, pure copper or copper alloys such ascopper with 3% silicon at a weld joint) so that the overburden portionsof the insulated conductors provide little or no heat output. In certainembodiments, conduit 406 includes non-corrosive materials and/or highstrength materials such as stainless steel. In one embodiment, conduit406 is 347H stainless steel.

Insulated conductors 410 may be coupled to the single transformer in athree-phase configuration (for example, a three-phase wyeconfiguration). Each insulated conductor 410 may be coupled to one phaseof the single transformer. In certain embodiments, the singletransformer is also coupled to a plurality of identical heaters 412 inother heater wells in the formation (for example, the single transformermay couple to 40 or more heaters in the formation). In some embodiments,the single transformer couples to at least 4, at least 5, at least 10,at least 15, or at least 25 additional heaters in the formation.

Electrical insulator 364′ may be located inside conduit 406 toelectrically insulate insulated conductors 410 from the conduit. Incertain embodiments, electrical insulator 364′ is magnesium oxide (forexample, compacted magnesium oxide). In some embodiments, electricalinsulator 364′ is silicon nitride (for example, silicon nitride blocks).Electrical insulator 364′ electrically insulates insulated conductors410 from conduit 406 so that at high operating voltages (for example, 3kV or higher), there is no arcing between the conductors and theconduit. In some embodiments, electrical insulator 364′ inside conduit406 has at least the thickness of electrical insulators 364 in insulatedconductors 410. The increased thickness of insulation in heater 412(from electrical insulators 364 and/or electrical insulator 364′)inhibits and may prevent current leakage into the formation from theheater. In some embodiments, electrical insulator 364′ spatially locatesinsulated conductors 410 inside conduit 406.

FIG. 37 depicts an embodiment of three-phase wye transformer 414 coupledto a plurality of heaters 412. For simplicity in the drawing, only fourheaters 412 are shown in FIG. 37. It is to be understood that severalmore heaters may be coupled to the transformer 414. As shown in FIG. 37,each leg (each insulated conductor) of each heater is coupled to onephase of transformer 414 and current is returned to the neutral orground of the transformer (for example, returned through conductor 416depicted in FIGS. 36 and 38).

Return conductor 416 may be electrically coupled to the ends ofinsulated conductors 410 (as shown in FIG. 38) current returns from theends of the insulated conductors to the transformer on the surface ofthe formation. Return conductor 416 may include high electricalconductivity materials such as pure copper, nickel, copper alloys, orcombinations thereof so that the return conductor provides little or noheat output. In some embodiments, return conductor 416 is a tubular (forexample, a stainless steel tubular) that allows an optical fiber to beplaced inside the tubular to be used for temperature and/or othermeasurement. In some embodiments, return conductor 416 is a smallinsulated conductor (for example, small mineral insulated conductor).Return conductor 416 may be coupled to the neutral or ground leg of thetransformer in a three-phase wye configuration. Thus, insulatedconductors 410 are electrically isolated from conduit 406 and theformation. Using return conductor 416 to return current to the surfacemay make coupling the heater to a wellhead easier. In some embodiments,current is returned using one or more of jackets 370, depicted in FIG.36. One or more jackets 370 may be coupled to cores 374 at the end ofthe heaters and return current to the neutral of the three-phase wyetransformer.

FIG. 38 depicts a side view representation of the end section of threeinsulated conductors 410 in conduit 406. The end section is the sectionof the heaters the furthest away from (distal from) the surface of theformation. The end section includes contactor section 418 coupled toconduit 406. In some embodiments, contactor section 418 is welded orbrazed to conduit 406. Termination 420 is located in contactor section418. Termination 420 is electrically coupled to insulated conductors 410and return conductor 416. Termination 420 electrically couples the coresof insulated conductors 410 to the return conductor 416 at the ends ofthe heaters.

In certain embodiments, heater 412, depicted in FIGS. 36 and 38,includes an overburden section using copper as the core of the insulatedconductors. The copper in the overburden section may be the samediameter as the cores used in the heating section of the heater. Thecopper in the overburden section may have a larger diameter than thecores in the heating section of the heater. Increasing the size of thecopper in the overburden section may decrease losses in the overburdensection of the heater.

Heaters that include three insulated conductors 410 in conduit 406, asdepicted in FIGS. 36 and 38, may be made in a multiple step process. Insome embodiments, the multiple step process is performed at the site ofthe formation or treatment area. In some embodiments, the multiple stepprocess is performed at a remote manufacturing site away from theformation. The finished heater is then transported to the treatmentarea.

Insulated conductors 410 may be pre-assembled prior to the bundlingeither on site or at a remote location. Insulated conductors 410 andreturn conductor 416 may be positioned on spools. A machine may drawinsulated conductors 410 and return conductor 416 from the spools at aselected rate. Preformed blocks of insulation material may be positionedaround return conductor 416 and insulated conductors 410. In anembodiment, two blocks are positioned around return conductor 416 andthree blocks are positioned around insulated conductors 410 to formelectrical insulator 364′. The insulated conductors and return conductormay be drawn or pushed into a plate of conduit material that has beenrolled into a tubular shape. The edges of the plate may be pressedtogether and welded (for example, by laser welding). After formingconduit 406 around electrical insulator 364′, the bundle of insulatedconductors 410, and return conductor 416, the conduit may be compactedagainst the electrical insulator 416 so that all of the components ofthe heater are pressed together into a compact and tightly fitting form.During the compaction, the electrical insulator may flow and fill anygaps inside the heater.

In some embodiments, heater 412 (which includes conduit 406 aroundelectrical insulator 364′ and the bundle of insulated conductors 410 andreturn conductor 416) is inserted into a coiled tubing tubular that isplaced in a wellbore in the formation. The coiled tubing tubular may beleft in place in the formation (left in during heating of the formation)or removed from the formation after installation of the heater. Thecoiled tubing tubular may allow for easier installation of heater 412into the wellbore.

In some embodiments, one or more components of heater 412 are varied(for example, removed, moved, or replaced) while the operation of theheater remains substantially identical. FIG. 39 depicts an embodiment ofheater 412 with three insulated cores 374 in conduit 406. In thisembodiment, electrical insulator 364′ surrounds cores 374 and returnconductor 416 in conduit 406. Cores 374 are located in conduit 406without an electrical insulator and jacket surrounding the cores. Cores374 are coupled to the single transformer in a three-phase wyeconfiguration with each core 374 coupled to one phase of thetransformer. Return conductor 416 is electrically coupled to the ends ofcores 374 and returns current from the ends of the cores to thetransformer on the surface of the formation.

FIG. 40 depicts an embodiment of heater 412 with three insulatedconductors 410 and insulated return conductor in conduit 406. In thisembodiment, return conductor 416 is an insulated conductor with core374, electrical insulator 364, and jacket 370. Return conductor 416 andinsulated conductors 410 are located in conduit 406 surrounded byelectrical insulator 364′. Return conductor 416 and insulated conductors410 may be the same size or different sizes. Return conductor 416 andinsulated conductors 410 operate substantially the same as in theembodiment depicted in FIGS. 36 and 38.

Mineral insulated (MI) cables (insulated conductors) for use insubsurface applications, such as heating hydrocarbon containingformations in some applications, are longer, may have larger outsidediameters, and may operate at higher voltages and temperatures than whatis typical in the MI cable industry. For these subsurface applications,the joining of multiple MI cables is needed to make MI cables withsufficient length to reach the depths and distances needed to heat thesubsurface efficiently and to join segments with different functions,such as lead-in cables joined to heater sections. Such long heaters alsorequire higher voltages to provide enough power to the farthest ends ofthe heaters.

Conventional MI cable splice designs are typically not suitable forvoltages above 1000 volts, above 1500 volts, or above 2000 volts and maynot operate for extended periods without failure at elevatedtemperatures, such as over 650° C. (about 1200° F.), over 700° C. (about1290° F.), or over 800° C. (about 1470° F.). Such high voltage, hightemperature applications typically require the compaction of the mineralinsulant in the splice to be as close as possible to or above the levelof compaction in the insulated conductor (MI cable) itself.

The relatively large outside diameter and long length of MI cables forsome applications requires that the cables be spliced while orientedhorizontally. There are splices for other applications of MI cables thathave been fabricated horizontally. These techniques typically use asmall hole through which the mineral insulation (such as magnesium oxidepowder) is filled into the splice and compacted slightly throughvibration and tamping. Such methods do not provide sufficient compactionof the mineral insulation or even allow any compaction of the mineralinsulation, and are not suitable for making splices for use at the highvoltages needed for these subsurface applications.

Thus, there is a need for splices of insulated conductors that aresimple yet can operate at the high voltages and temperatures in thesubsurface environment over long durations without failure. In addition,the splices may need higher bending and tensile strengths to inhibitfailure of the splice under the weight loads and temperatures that thecables can be subjected to in the subsurface. Techniques and methodsalso may be utilized to reduce electric field intensities in the splicesso that leakage currents in the splices are reduced and to increase themargin between the operating voltage and electrical breakdown. Reducingelectric field intensities may help increase voltage and temperatureoperating ranges of the splices.

FIG. 41 depicts a side view cross-sectional representation of oneembodiment of a fitting for joining insulated conductors. Fitting 422 isa splice or coupling joint for joining insulated conductors 410A, 410B.In certain embodiments, fitting 422 includes sleeve 424 and housings426A, 426B. Housings 426A, 426B may be splice housings, coupling jointhousings, coupler housings. Sleeve 424 and housings 426A, 426B may bemade of mechanically strong, electrically conductive materials such as,but not limited to, stainless steel. Sleeve 424 and housings 426A, 426Bmay be cylindrically shaped or polygon shaped. Sleeve 424 and housings426A, 426B may have rounded edges, tapered diameter changes, otherfeatures, or combinations thereof, which may reduce electric fieldintensities in fitting 422.

Fitting 422 may be used to couple (splice) insulated conductor 410A toinsulated conductor 410B while maintaining the mechanical and electricalintegrity of the jackets (sheaths), insulation, and cores (conductors)of the insulated conductors. Fitting 422 may be used to couple heatproducing insulated conductors with non-heat producing insulatedconductors, to couple heat producing insulated conductors with otherheat producing insulated conductors, or to couple non-heat producinginsulated conductors with other non-heat producing insulated conductors.In some embodiments, more than one fitting 422 is used in to couplemultiple heat producing and non-heat producing insulated conductors toproduce a long insulated conductor.

Fitting 422 may be used to couple insulated conductors with differentdiameters, as shown in FIG. 41. For example, the insulated conductorsmay have different core (conductor) diameters, different jacket (sheath)diameters, or combinations of different diameters. Fitting 422 may alsobe used to couple insulated conductors with different metallurgies,different types of insulation, or a combination thereof.

As shown in FIG. 41, housing 426A is coupled to jacket (sheath) 370A ofinsulated conductor 410A and housing 426B is coupled to jacket 370B ofinsulated conductor 410B. In certain embodiments, housings 426A, 426Bare welded, brazed, or otherwise permanently affixed to insulatedconductors 410A, 410B. In some embodiments, housings 426A, 426B aretemporarily or semi-permanently affixed to jackets 370A, 370B ofinsulated conductors 410A, 410B (for example, coupled using threads oradhesives). Fitting 422 may be centered between the end portions of theinsulated conductors 410A, 410B.

In certain embodiments, the interior volumes of sleeve 424 and housings426A, 426B are substantially filled with electrically insulatingmaterial 430. In certain embodiments, “substantially filled” refers toentirely or almost entirely filling the volume or volumes withelectrically insulating material with substantially no macroscopic voidsin the volume or volumes. For example, substantially filled may refer tofilling almost the entire volume with electrically insulating materialthat has some porosity because of microscopic voids (for example, up toabout 40% porosity). Electrically insulating material 430 may bemagnesium oxide, talc, other electrical insulators such as ceramicpowders (for example, boron nitride), a mixture of magnesium oxide andanother electrical insulator (for example, up to about 50% by volumeboron nitride), ceramic cement, mixtures of ceramic powders with certainnon-ceramic materials (such as tungsten sulfide (WS₂)), or mixturesthereof. For example, magnesium oxide may be mixed with boron nitride oranother electrical insulator to improve the ability of the electricallyinsulating material to flow, to improve the dielectric characteristicsof the electrically insulating material, or to improve the flexibilityof the fitting. In some embodiments, electrically insulating material430 is material similar to electrical insulation used inside of at leastone of insulated conductors 410A, 410B. Electrically insulating material430 may have substantially similar dielectric characteristics toelectrical insulation used inside of at least one of insulatedconductors 410A, 410B.

In certain embodiments, first sleeve 424 and housings 426A, 426B aremade up (for example, put together or manufactured) buried or submergedin electrically insulating material 430. Making up sleeve 424 andhousings 426A, 426B buried in electrically insulating material 430inhibits open space from forming in the interior volumes of theportions. Sleeve 424 and housings 426A, 426B have open ends to allowinsulated conductors 410A, 410B to pass through. These open ends may besized to have diameters slightly larger than the outside diameter of thejackets of the insulated conductors.

In certain embodiments, cores 374A, 374B of insulated conductors 410A,410B are joined together at coupling 428. The jackets and insulation ofinsulated conductors 410A, 410B may be cut back or stripped to exposedesired lengths of cores 374A, 374B before joining the cores. Coupling428 may be located in electrically insulating material 430 inside sleeve424.

Coupling 428 may join cores 374A, 374B together, for example, bycompression, crimping, brazing, welding, or other techniques known inthe art. In some embodiments, core 374A is made of different materialthan core 374B. For example, core 374A may be copper while core 374B isstainless steel, carbon steel, or Alloy 180. In such embodiments,special methods may have to be used to weld the cores together. Forexample, the tensile strength properties and/or yield strengthproperties of the cores may have to be matched closely such that thecoupling between the cores does not degrade over time or with use.

In some embodiments, a copper core may be work-hardened before joiningthe core to carbon steel or Alloy 180. In some embodiments, the coresare coupled by in-line welding using filler material (for example,filler metal) between the cores of different materials. For example,Monel® (Special Metals Corporation, New Hartford, N.Y., U.S.A.) nickelalloys may be used as filler material. In some embodiments, copper coresare buttered (melted and mixed) with the filler material before thewelding process.

In an embodiment, insulated conductors 410A, 410B are coupled usingfitting 422 by first sliding housing 426A over jacket 370A of insulatedconductor 410A and, second, sliding housing 426B over jacket 370B ofinsulated conductor 410B. The housings are slid over the jackets withthe large diameter ends of the housings facing the ends of the insulatedconductors. Sleeve 424 may be slid over insulated conductor 410B suchthat it is adjacent to housing 426B. Cores 374A, 374B are joined atcoupling 428 to create a robust electrical and mechanical connectionbetween the cores. The small diameter end of housing 426A is joined (forexample, welded) to jacket 370A of insulated conductor 410A. Sleeve 424and housing 426B are brought (moved or pushed) together with housing426A to form fitting 422. The interior volume of fitting 422 may besubstantially filled with electrically insulating material while thesleeve and the housings are brought together. The interior volume of thecombined sleeve and housings is reduced such that the electricallyinsulating material substantially filling the entire interior volume iscompacted. Sleeve 424 is joined to housing 426B and housing 426B isjoined to jacket 370B of insulated conductor 410B. The volume of sleeve424 may be further reduced, if additional compaction is desired.

In certain embodiments, the interior volumes of housings 426A, 426Bfilled with electrically insulating material 430 have tapered shapes.The diameter of the interior volumes of housings 426A, 426B may taperfrom a smaller diameter at or near the ends of the housings coupled toinsulated conductors 410A, 410B to a larger diameter at or near the endsof the housings located inside sleeve 424 (the ends of the housingsfacing each other or the ends of the housings facing the ends of theinsulated conductors). The tapered shapes of the interior volumes mayreduce electric field intensities in fitting 422. Reducing electricfield intensities in fitting 422 may reduce leakage currents in thefitting at increased operating voltages and temperatures, and mayincrease the margin to electrical breakdown. Thus, reducing electricfield intensities in fitting 422 may increase the range of operatingvoltages and temperatures for the fitting.

In some embodiments, the insulation from insulated conductors 410A, 410Btapers from jackets 370A, 370B down to cores 374A, 374B in the directiontoward the center of fitting 422 in the event that the electricallyinsulating material 430 is a weaker dielectric than the insulation inthe insulated conductors. In some embodiments, the insulation frominsulated conductors 410A, 410B tapers from jackets 370A, 370B down tocores 374A, 374B in the direction toward the insulated conductors in theevent that electrically insulating material 430 is a stronger dielectricthan the insulation in the insulated conductors. Tapering the insulationfrom the insulated conductors reduces the intensity of electric fieldsat the interfaces between the insulation in the insulated conductors andthe electrically insulating material within the fitting.

FIG. 42 depicts a tool that may be used to cut away part of the insideof insulated conductors 410A, 410B (for example, electrical insulationinside the jacket of the insulated conductor). Cutting tool 436 mayinclude cutting teeth 438 and drive tube 440. Drive tube 440 may becoupled to the body of cutting tool 436 using, for example, a weld orbraze. In some embodiments, no cutting tool is needed to cut awayelectrical insulation from inside the jacket.

Sleeve 424 and housings 426A, 426B may be coupled together using anymeans known in the art such as brazing, welding, or crimping. In someembodiments, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 43, sleeve 424 and housings426A, 426B have threads that engage to couple the pieces together.

As shown in FIGS. 41 and 43, in certain embodiments, electricallyinsulating material 430 is compacted during the assembly process. Theforce to press the housings 426A, 426B toward each other may put apressure on electrically insulating material 430 of at least 25,000pounds per square inch, or between 25,000 and 55,000 pounds per squareinch, in order to provide acceptable compaction of the insulatingmaterial. The tapered shapes of the interior volumes of housings 426A,426B and the make-up of electrically insulating material 430 may enhancecompaction of the electrically insulating material during the assemblyprocess to the point where the dielectric characteristics of theelectrically insulating material are, to the extent practical,comparable to that within insulated conductors 410A, 410B. Methods anddevices to facilitate compaction include, but are not limited to,mechanical methods (such as shown in FIG. 46), pneumatic, hydraulic(such as shown in FIGS. 47 and 48), swaged, or combinations thereof.

The combination of moving the pieces together with force and thehousings having the tapered interior volumes compacts electricallyinsulating material 430 using both axial and radial compression. Usingboth axial and radial compression of electrically insulating material430 provides more uniform compaction of the electrically insulatingmaterial. In some embodiments, vibration and/or tamping of electricallyinsulating material 430 may also be used to consolidate the electricallyinsulating material. Vibration (and/or tamping) may be applied either atthe same time as application of force to push the housings 426A, 426Btogether, or vibration (and/or tamping) may be alternated withapplication of such force. Vibration and/or tamping may reduce bridgingof particles in electrically insulating material 430.

In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 43, electrically insulating material430 inside housings 426A, 426B is compressed mechanically by tighteningnuts 434 against ferrules 432 coupled to jackets 370A, 370B. Themechanical method compacts the interior volumes of housings 426A, 426Bbecause of the tapered shape of the interior volumes. Ferrules 432 maybe copper or other soft metal ferrules. Nuts 434 may be stainless steelor other hard metal nut that is movable on jackets 370A, 370B. Nuts 434may engage threads on housings 426A, 426B to couple to the housings. Asnuts 434 are threaded onto housings 426A, 426B, nuts 434 and ferrules432 work to compress the interior volumes of the housings. In someembodiments, nuts 434 and ferrules 432 may work to move housings 426A,426B further onto sleeve 424 (using the threaded coupling between thepieces) and compact the interior volume of the sleeve. In someembodiments, housings 426A, 426B and sleeve 424 are coupled togetherusing the threaded coupling before the nut and ferrule are swaged downon the second portion. As the interior volumes inside housings 426A,426B are compressed, the interior volume inside sleeve 424 may also becompressed. In some embodiments, nuts 434 and ferrules 432 may act tocouple housings 426A, 426B to insulated conductors 410A, 410B.

In certain embodiments, multiple insulated conductors are splicedtogether in an end fitting. For example, three insulated conductors maybe spliced together in an end fitting to couple electrically theinsulated conductors in a 3-phase wye configuration. FIG. 44A depicts aside view of a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment ofthreaded fitting 442 for coupling three insulated conductors 410A, 410B,410C. FIG. 44B depicts a side view of a cross-sectional representationof an embodiment of welded fitting 442 for coupling three insulatedconductors 410A, 410B, 410C. As shown in FIGS. 44A and 44B, insulatedconductors 410A, 410B, 410C may be coupled to fitting 442 through endcap 444. End cap 444 may include three strain relief fittings 446through which insulated conductors 410A, 410B, 410C pass.

Cores 374A, 374B, 374C of the insulated conductors may be coupledtogether at coupling 428. Coupling 428 may be, for example, a braze(such as a silver braze or copper braze), a welded joint, or a crimpedjoint. Coupling cores 374A, 374B, 374C at coupling 428 electrically jointhe three insulated conductors for use in a 3-phase wye configuration.

As shown in FIG. 44A, end cap 444 may be coupled to main body 448 offitting 442 using threads. Threading of end cap 444 and main body 448may allow the end cap to compact electrically insulating material 430inside the main body. At the end of main body 448 opposite of end cap444 is cover 450. Cover 450 may also be attached to main body 448 bythreads. In certain embodiments, compaction of electrically insulatingmaterial 430 in fitting 442 is enhanced through tightening of cover 450into main body 448, by crimping of the main body after attachment of thecover, or a combination of these methods.

As shown in FIG. 44B, end cap 444 may be coupled to main body 448 offitting 442 using welding, brazing, or crimping. End cap 444 may bepushed or pressed into main body 448 to compact electrically insulatingmaterial 430 inside the main body. Cover 450 may also be attached tomain body 448 by welding, brazing, or crimping. Cover 450 may be pushedor pressed into main body 448 to compact electrically insulatingmaterial 430 inside the main body. Crimping of the main body afterattachment of the cover may further enhance compaction of electricallyinsulating material 430 in fitting 442.

In some embodiments, as shown in FIGS. 44A and 44B, plugs 452 closeopenings or holes in cover 450. For example, the plugs may be threaded,welded, or brazed into openings in cover 450. The openings in cover 450may allow electrically insulating material 430 to be provided insidefitting 442 when cover 450 and end cap 444 are coupled to main body 448.The openings in cover 450 may be plugged or covered after electricallyinsulating material 430 is provided inside fitting 442. In someembodiments, openings are located on main body 448 of fitting 442.Openings on main body 448 may be plugged with plugs 452 or other plugs.

In some embodiments, cover 450 includes one or more pins. In someembodiments, the pins are or are part of plugs 452. The pins may engagea torque tool that turns cover 450 and tightens the cover on main body448. An example of torque tool 454 that may engage the pins is depictedin FIG. 45. Torque tool 454 may have an inside diameter thatsubstantially matches the outside diameter of cover 450 (depicted inFIG. 44A). As shown in FIG. 45, torque tool 454 may have slots or otherdepressions that are shaped to engage the pins on cover 450. Torque tool454 may include recess 456. Recess 456 may be a square drive recess orother shaped recess that allows operation (turning) of the torque tool.

FIG. 46 depicts an embodiment of clamp assemblies 458A,B that may beused to mechanically compact fitting 422. Clamp assemblies 458A,B may beshaped to secure fitting 422 in place at the shoulders of housings 426A,426B. Threaded rods 462 may pass through holes 460 of clamp assemblies458A,B. Nuts 468, along with washers, on each of threaded rods 462 maybe used to apply force on the outside faces of each clamp assembly andbring the clamp assemblies together such that compressive forces areapplied to housings 426A, 426B of fitting 422. These compressive forcescompact electrically insulating material inside fitting 422.

In some embodiments, clamp assemblies 458 are used in hydraulic,pneumatic, or other compaction methods. FIG. 47 depicts an exploded viewof an embodiment of hydraulic compaction machine 464. FIG. 48 depicts arepresentation of an embodiment of assembled hydraulic compactionmachine 464. As shown in FIGS. 47 and 48, clamp assemblies 458 may beused to secure fitting 422 (depicted, for example, in FIG. 41) in placewith insulated conductors coupled to the fitting. At least one clampassembly (for example, clamp assembly 458A) may be moveable together tocompact the fitting in the axial direction. Power unit 466, shown inFIG. 47, may be used to power compaction machine 464.

FIG. 49 depicts an embodiment of fitting 422 and insulated conductors410A, 410B secured in clamp assembly 458A and clamp assembly 458B beforecompaction of the fitting and insulated conductors. As shown in FIG. 49,the cores of insulated conductors 410A, 410B are coupled using coupling428 at or near the center of sleeve 424. Sleeve 424 is slid over housing426A, which is coupled to insulated conductor 410A. Sleeve 424 andhousing 426A are secured in fixed (non-moving) clamp assembly 458B.Insulated conductor 410B passes through housing 426B and movable clampassembly 458A. Insulated conductor 410B may be secured by another clampassembly fixed relative to clamp assembly 458B (not shown). Clampassembly 458A may be moved towards clamp assembly 458B to couple housing426B to sleeve 424 and compact electrically insulating material insidethe housings and the sleeve. Interfaces between insulated conductor 410Aand housing 426A, between housing 426A and sleeve 424, between sleeve424 and housing 426B, and between housing 426B and insulated conductor410B may then be coupled by welding, brazing, or other techniques knownin the art.

FIG. 50 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment of fitting470 for joining insulated conductors. Fitting 470 may be a cylinder orsleeve that has sufficient clearance between the inside diameter of thesleeve and the outside diameters of insulated conductors 410A, 410B suchthat the sleeve fits over the ends of the insulated conductors. Thecores of insulated conductors 410A, 410B may be joined inside fitting470. The jackets and insulation of insulated conductors 410A, 410B maybe cut back or stripped to expose desired lengths of the cores beforejoining the cores. Fitting 470 may be centered between the end portionsof insulated conductors 410A, 410B.

Fitting 470 may be used to couple insulated conductor 410A to insulatedconductor 410B while maintaining the mechanical and electrical integrityof the jackets, insulation, and cores of the insulated conductors.Fitting 470 may be used to couple heat producing insulated conductorswith non-heat producing insulated conductors, to couple heat producinginsulated conductors with other heat producing insulated conductors, orto couple non-heat producing insulated conductors with other non-heatproducing insulated conductors. In some embodiments, more than onefitting 470 is used in to couple multiple heat producing and non-heatproducing insulated conductors to produce a long insulated conductor.

Fitting 470 may be used to couple insulated conductors with differentdiameters. For example, the insulated conductors may have different corediameters, different jacket diameters, or combinations of differentdiameters. Fitting 470 may also be used to couple insulated conductorswith different metallurgies, different types of insulation, or acombination thereof.

In certain embodiments, fitting 470 has at least one angled end. Forexample, the ends of fitting 470 may be angled relative to thelongitudinal axis of the fitting. The angle may be, for example, about45° or between 30° and 60°. Thus, the ends of fitting 470 may havesubstantially elliptical cross-sections. The substantially ellipticalcross-sections of the ends of fitting 470 provide a larger area forwelding or brazing of the fitting to insulated conductors 410A, 410B.The larger coupling area increases the strength of spliced insulatedconductors. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 50, the angled ends offitting 470 give the fitting a substantially parallelogram shape.

The angled ends of fitting 470 provide higher tensile strength andhigher bending strength for the fitting than if the fitting had straightends by distributing loads along the fitting. Fitting 470 may beoriented so that when insulated conductors 410A, 410B and the fittingare spooled (for example, on a coiled tubing installation), the angledends act as a transition in stiffness from the fitting body to theinsulated conductors. This transition reduces the likelihood of theinsulated conductors to kink or crimp at the end of the fitting body.

As shown in FIG. 50, fitting 470 includes opening 472. Opening 472allows electrically insulating material (such as electrically insulatingmaterial 430, depicted in FIG. 41) to be provided (filled) insidefitting 470. Opening 472 may be a slot or other longitudinal openingextending along part of the length of fitting 470. In certainembodiments, opening 472 extends substantially the entire gap betweenthe ends of insulated conductors 410A, 410B inside fitting 470. Opening472 allows substantially the entire volume (area) between insulatedconductors 410A, 410B, and around any welded or spliced joints betweenthe insulated conductors, to be filled with electrically insulatingmaterial without the insulating material having to be moved axiallytoward the ends of the volume between the insulated conductors. Thewidth of opening 472 allows electrically insulating material to beforced into the opening and packed more tightly inside fitting 470,thus, reducing the amount of void space inside the fitting. Electricallyinsulating material may be forced through the slot into the volumebetween insulated conductors 410A, 410B, for example, with a tool withthe dimensions of the slot. The tool may be forced into the slot tocompact the insulating material. Then, additional insulating materialmay be added and the compaction is repeated. In some embodiments, theelectrically insulating material may be further compacted inside fitting470 using vibration, tamping, or other techniques. Further compactingthe electrically insulating material may more uniformly distribute theelectrically insulating material inside fitting 470.

After filling electrically insulating material inside fitting 470 and,in some embodiment, compaction of the electrically insulating material,opening 472 may be closed. For example, an insert or other covering maybe placed over the opening and secured in place. FIG. 51 depicts a sideview representation of an embodiment of fitting 470 with opening 472covered with insert 474. Insert 474 may be welded or brazed to fitting470 to close opening 472. In some embodiments, insert 474 is ground orpolished so that the insert if flush on the surface of fitting 470. Alsodepicted in FIG. 51, welds or brazes 476 may be used to secure fitting470 to insulated conductors 410A, 410B.

After opening 472 is closed, fitting 470 may be compacted mechanically,hydraulically, pneumatically, or using swaging methods to compactfurther the electrically insulating material inside the fitting. Furthercompaction of the electrically insulating material reduces void volumeinside fitting 470 and reduces the leakage currents through the fittingand increases the operating range of the fitting (for example, themaximum operating voltages or temperatures of the fitting).

In certain embodiments, fitting 470 includes certain features that mayfurther reduce electric field intensities inside the fitting. Forexample, fitting 470 or coupling 428 of the cores of the insulatedconductors inside the fitting may include tapered edges, rounded edges,or other smoothed out features to reduce electric field intensities.FIG. 52 depicts an embodiment of fitting 470 with electric fieldreducing features at coupling 428 between insulated conductors 410A,410B. As shown in FIG. 52, coupling 428 is a welded joint with asmoothed out or rounded profile to reduce electric field intensityinside fitting 470. In addition, fitting 470 has a tapered interiorvolume to increase the volume of electrically insulating material insidethe fitting. Having the tapered and larger volume may reduce electricfield intensities inside fitting 470.

In some embodiments, electric field stress reducers may be locatedinside fitting 470 to decrease the electric field intensity. FIG. 53depicts an embodiment of electric field stress reducer 478. Reducer 478may be located in the interior volume of fitting 470 (shown in FIG. 52).Reducer 478 may be a split ring or other separable piece so that thereducer can be fitted around cores 374A, 374B of insulated conductors410A, 410B after they are joined (shown in FIG. 52).

The fittings depicted herein (such as fitting 422, depicted in FIGS. 41and 43, fitting 442, depicted in FIG. 44, and fitting 470, depicted inFIGS. 50, 51, and 52) may form robust electrical and mechanicalconnections between insulated conductors. For example, fittings depictedherein may be suitable for extended operation at voltages above 1000volts, above 1500 volts, or above 2000 volts and temperatures of atleast about 650° C., at least about 700° C., at least about 800° C.

In certain embodiments, the fittings depicted herein couple insulatedconductors used for heating (for example, insulated conductors locatedin a hydrocarbon containing layer) to insulated conductors not used forheating (for example, insulated conductors used in overburden sectionsof the formation). The heating insulated conductor may have a smallercore and different material core than the non-heating insulatedconductor. For example, the core of the heating insulated conductor maybe a copper-nickel alloy, stainless steel, or carbon steel while thecore of the non-heating insulated conductor may be copper. Because ofthe difference in sizes and electrical properties of materials of thecores, however, the electrical insulation in the sections may havesufficiently different thicknesses that cannot be compensated in asingle fitting joining the insulated conductors. Thus, in someembodiments, a short section of intermediate heating insulated conductormay be used in between the heating insulated conductor and thenon-heating insulated conductor.

The intermediate heating insulated conductor may have a core diameterthat tapers from the core diameter of the non-heating insulatedconductor to the core diameter of the heating insulated conductor whileusing core material similar to the non-heating insulated conductor. Forexample, the intermediate heating insulated conductor may be copper witha core diameter that tapers to the same diameter as the heatinginsulated conductor. Thus, the thickness of the electrical insulation atthe fitting coupling the intermediate insulated conductor and theheating insulated conductor is similar to the thickness of theelectrical insulation in the heating insulated conductor. Having thesame thickness allows the insulated conductors to be easily joined inthe fitting. The intermediate heating insulated conductor may providesome voltage drop and some heating losses because of the smaller corediameter, however, the intermediate heating insulated conductor may berelatively short in length such that these losses are minimal.

FIGS. 54 and 55 depict cross-sectional representations of anotherembodiment of fitting 422 used for joining insulated conductors. FIG. 54depicts a cross-sectional representation of fitting 422 as insulatedconductors 410A, 410B are being moved into the fitting. FIG. 55 depictsa cross-sectional representation of fitting 422 with insulatedconductors 410A, 410B joined inside the fitting. In certain embodiments,fitting 422 includes sleeve 424 and coupling 428.

Coupling 428 is used to join and electrically couple cores 374A, 374B ofinsulated conductors 410A, 410B inside fitting 422. Coupling 428 may bemade of copper or another suitable electrical conductor. In certainembodiments, cores 374A, 374B are press fit or pushed into coupling 428.In some embodiments, coupling 428 is heated to enable cores 374A, 374Bto be slid into the coupling. In some embodiments, coupling 428 includesone or more grooves on the inside of the coupling. The grooves mayinhibit particles from entering or exiting the coupling after the coresare joined in the coupling. In some embodiments, coupling 428 has atapered inner diameter (for example, tighter inside diameter towards thecenter of the coupling). The tapered inner diameter may provide a betterpress fit between coupling 428 and cores 374A, 374B.

In certain embodiments, electrically insulating material 430 is locatedinside sleeve 424. Electrically insulating material 430 may be magnesiumoxide, boron nitride, other electrically insulating materials, orcombinations thereof. For example, in some embodiments, electricallyinsulating material 430 is magnesium oxide or a mixture of magnesiumoxide and boron nitride (80% magnesium oxide and 20% boron nitride byvolume). In some embodiments, sleeve 424 has one or more grooves 1346.Grooves 1346 may inhibit electrically insulating material 430 frommoving out of sleeve 424 (for example, the grooves trap the electricallyinsulating material in the sleeve).

In certain embodiments, electrically insulating material 430 has concaveshaped end portions at or near the edges of coupling 428, as shown inFIG. 54. The concave shapes of electrically insulating material 430 mayenhance coupling with electrical insulators 364A, 364B of insulatedconductors 410A, 410B. In some embodiments, electrical insulators 364A,364B have convex shaped (or tapered) end portions to enhance couplingwith electrically insulating material 430. The end portions ofelectrically insulating material 430 and electrical insulators 364A,364B may comingle or mix under the pressure applied during joining ofthe insulated conductors. The comingling or mixing of the insulationmaterials may enhance the coupling between the insulated conductors.

In certain embodiments, insulated conductors 410A, 410B are joined withfitting 422 by moving (pushing) the insulated conductors togethertowards the center of the fitting. Cores 374A, 374B are brought togetherinside coupling 428 with the movement of insulated conductors 410A,410B. After insulated conductors 410A, 410B are moved together intofitting 422, the fitting and end portions of the insulated conductorsinside the fitting may be compacted or pressed to secure the insulatedconductors in the fitting and compress electrically insulating material430. Clamp assemblies (such as those depicted in FIG. 49) or othersimilar devices may be used to bring together insulated conductors 410A,410B and fitting 422. In some embodiments, end portions of sleeve 424are coupled (welded or brazed) to jackets 370A, 370B of insulatedconductors 410A, 410B. In some embodiments, a support sleeve and/orstrain reliefs are placed over fitting 422 to provide additionalstrength to the fitting.

There are many potential problems in making insulated conductors inrelatively long lengths (for example, lengths of 10 m or longer). Forexample, gaps may exist between blocks of material used to form theelectrical insulator in the insulated conductor. These gaps may lead tobulges or mechanical defects in the core or other components of theinsulated conductor. Insulated conductors include insulated conductorused as heaters and/or insulated conductors used in the overburdensection of the formation (insulated conductors that provide little or noheat output). Insulated conductors may be, for example, mineralinsulated conductors such as mineral insulated cables.

In a typical process used to make (form) an insulated conductor, thejacket of the insulated conductor starts as a strip of electricallyconducting material (for example, stainless steel). The jacket strip isformed (longitudinally rolled) into a partial cylindrical shape andelectrical insulator blocks (for example, magnesium oxide blocks) areinserted into the partially cylindrical jacket. The inserted blocks maybe partial cylinder blocks such as half-cylinder blocks. Followinginsertion of the blocks, the longitudinal core, which is typically asolid cylinder, is placed in the partial cylinder and inside thehalf-cylinder blocks. The core is made of electrically conductingmaterial such as copper, nickel, and/or steel.

Once the electrical insulator blocks and the core are in place, theportion of the jacket containing the blocks and the core may be formedinto a complete cylinder around the blocks and the core. Thelongitudinal edges of the jacket that close the cylinder may be weldedto form an insulated conductor assembly with the core and electricalinsulator blocks inside the jacket. The process of inserting the blocksand closing the jacket cylinder may be repeated along a length of jacketto form the insulated conductor assembly in a desired length.

As the insulated conductor assembly is formed, further steps may betaken to reduce gaps in the assembly. For example, the insulatedconductor assembly may be moved through a progressive reduction systemto reduce gaps in the assembly. One example of a progressive reductionsystem is a roller system. In the roller system, the insulated conductorassembly may progress through multiple horizontal and vertical rollerswith the assembly alternating between horizontal and vertical rollers.The rollers may progressively reduce the size of the insulated conductorassembly into the final, desired outside diameter.

If the electrical insulator blocks are allowed to freely sit in thejacket during the insulated conductor assembly reduction process, one ormore of the blocks may have gaps between them that allow problems suchas core bulge or other mechanical defects to occur in the reducedinsulated conductor assembly. Such occurrences may lead to electricalproblems during use of the insulated conductor assembly and maypotentially render the assembly inoperable for its intended purpose.Thus, a reliable method is needed to ensure that gaps between theelectrical insulator blocks are reduced or eliminated during theinsulated conductor assembly reduction process.

In certain embodiments, an axial force is placed on the blocks insidethe insulated conductor assembly to minimize gaps between the blocks.For example, as one or more blocks are inserted in the insulatedconductor assembly, the inserted blocks may be pushed (eithermechanically or pneumatically) axially along the assembly against blocksalready in the assembly. Pushing the inserted blocks against the blocksalready in the insulated conductor assembly with a sufficient forceminimizes gaps between blocks by providing and maintaining a forcebetween blocks along the length of the assembly as the assembly is movedthrough the assembly reduction process.

FIGS. 56-58 depict one embodiment of block pushing device 1348 that maybe used to provide axial force to blocks in the insulated conductorassembly. In certain embodiments, as shown in FIG. 56, device 1348includes insulated conductor holder 1350, plunger guide 1352, and aircylinders 1354. Device 1348 may be located in an assembly line used tomake insulated conductor assemblies. In certain embodiments, device 1348is located at the part of the assembly line used to insert blocks intothe jacket. For example, device 1348 is located between the steps oflongitudinally rolling the jacket strip into a partial cylindrical shapeand insertion of the core into the insulated conductor assembly. Afterinsertion of the core, the jacket containing the blocks and the core maybe formed into a complete cylinder. In some embodiments, the core isinserted before the blocks and the blocks are inserted around the coreand inside the jacket.

In certain embodiments, insulated conductor holder 1350 is shaped tohold part of the jacket 370 and allow the jacket assembly to movethrough the insulated conductor holder while other parts of the jacketsimultaneously move through other portions of the assembly line.Insulated conductor holder 1350 may be coupled to plunger guide 1352 andair cylinders 1354.

In certain embodiments, block holder 1356 is coupled to insulatedconductor holder 1350. Block holder 1356 may be a device used to storeand insert blocks 1358 into jacket 370. In certain embodiments, blocks1358 are formed from two half-cylinder blocks 1358A, 1358B. Blocks 1358may be made from an electrical insulator suitable for use in theinsulated conductor assembly such as, but not limited to, magnesiumoxide. In some embodiments, blocks 1358 are about 6″ in length. Thelength of blocks 1358 may, however, vary as desired or needed for theinsulated conductor assembly.

A divider may be used to separate blocks 1358A, 1358B in block holder1356 so that the blocks may be properly inserted into jacket 370. Asshown in FIG. 58, blocks 1358A, 1358B may be gravity fed from blockholder 1356 into jacket 370 as the jacket passes through insulatedconductor holder 1350. Blocks 1358A, 1358B may be inserted in a directside-by-side arrangement into jacket 370 (after insertion, the blocksrest directly side-by-side horizontally in the jacket).

As blocks 1358A, 1358B are inserted into jacket 370, the blocks may bemoved (pushed) towards previously inserted blocks to remove gaps betweenthe blocks inside the jacket. Blocks 1358A, 1358B may be moved towardspreviously inserted blocks using plunger 1360, shown in FIG. 58. Plunger1360 may be located inside jacket 370 such that the plunger providespressure to the blocks inside the jacket and not to the jacket itself.

In certain embodiments, plunger 1360 has a cross-sectional shape thatallows the plunger to move freely inside jacket 370 and provide axialforce on the blocks without providing force on the core inside thejacket. FIG. 59 depicts an embodiment of plunger 1360 with across-sectional shape that allows the plunger to provide force on theblocks but not on the core inside the jacket. In some embodiments,plunger 1360 is made of ceramic or is coated with a ceramic material. Anexample of a ceramic material that may be used is zirconia toughenedalumina (ZTA). Using a ceramic or ceramic coated plunger may inhibitabrasion of the blocks by the plunger when force is applied to theblocks by the plunger.

In certain embodiments, air cylinders 1354 are coupled to plunger guide1352 with one or more rods (shown in FIGS. 56 and 57). Air cylinders1354 and plunger guide 1352 may be inline with jacket 370 and plunger1360 to inhibit adding angular moment to the blocks or the jacket. Aircylinders 1354 may be operated using bi-directional valves so that theair cylinders can be extended or retracted based on which side of theair cylinders is provided with positive air pressure. When air cylinders1354 are extended (as shown in FIG. 56), plunger guide 1352 moves awayfrom insulated conductor holder 1350 so that plunger 1360 is cleared outof the way and allows blocks 1358A, 1358B to be inserted (for example,dropped) into jacket 370 from block holder 1356.

When air cylinders 1354 retract (as shown in FIG. 57), plunger guide1352 moves towards to plunger 1360 and plunger 1360 provides a selectedamount of force on blocks 1358A, 1358B. Plunger 1360 provides theselected amount of force on blocks 1358A, 1358B to push the blocks ontoblocks previously inserted into jacket 370. The amount of force providedby plunger 1360 on blocks 1358A, 1358B may be selected to based on thefactors such as, but not limited to, the speed of the jacket as it movesthrough the assembly line, the amount of force needed to inhibit gapsforming between adjacent blocks in the jacket, the maximum amount offorce that may be applied to the blocks without damaging the blocks, orcombinations thereof. For example, the selected amount of force may bebetween about 100 pounds of force and about 500 pounds of force (forexample, about 400 pounds of force). In certain embodiments, theselected amount of force is the minimum amount of force needed toinhibit the gaps from existing between adjacent blocks in the jacket.The selected amount of force may be determined by the amount of airpressure provided to the air cylinders.

After blocks 1358A, 1358B are pushed against previously inserted blocks,air pressure in air cylinders 1354 is reversed and the air cylindersextend such that plunger 1360 is retracted and additional blocks aredrop into jacket 370 from block holder 1356. This process may berepeated until jacket 370 is filled with blocks up to a desired lengthfor the insulated conductor assembly.

In certain embodiments, plunger 1360 is moved back and forth (extendedand retracted) using a cam that alternates the direction of air pressureprovided to air cylinders 1354. The cam may, for example, be coupled toa bi-directional valve used to operate the air cylinders. The cam mayhave a first position that operates the valve to extend the aircylinders and a second position that operates the valve to retract theair cylinders. The cam may be moved between the first and secondpositions by operation of the plunger such that the cam switches theoperation of air cylinders between extension and retraction.

Providing the intermittent force on blocks 1358A, 1358B from theextension and retraction of plunger 1360 provides the selected amount offorce on the string of blocks inserted into jacket 370. Providing thisforce to the string of blocks in the jacket removes and inhibits gapsfrom forming between adjacent blocks. Inhibiting gaps between blocksreduces the potential for mechanical and/or electrical failure in theinsulated conductor assembly.

In some embodiments, blocks 1358A, 1358B are inserted into jacket 370 inother methods besides the direct side-by-side arrangement describedabove. For example, the blocks may be inserted in a staggeredside-by-side arrangement where the blocks are offset along the length ofthe jacket. In such an arrangement, the plunger may have a differentshape to accommodate the offset blocks. For example, FIG. 60 depicts anembodiment of plunger 1360 that may be used to push offset (staggered)blocks. As another example, the blocks may be inserted in a top/bottomarrangement (one half-cylinder block on top of another half-cylinderblock). The top/bottom arrangement may have the blocks either directlyon top of each other or in an offset (staggered) relationship. FIG. 61depicts an embodiment of plunger 1360 that may be used to pushtop/bottom arranged blocks. Offsetting or staggering the block insidethe jacket may inhibit rotation of the blocks relative to blocks beforeor after the inserted blocks.

Another source of potential problems in insulated conductors withrelatively long lengths (for example, lengths of 10 m or longer) is thatthe electrical properties of the electrical insulator may degrade overtime. Any small change in an electrical property (for example,resistivity) may lead to failure of the insulated conductor. Since theelectrical insulator used in the long length insulated conductor istypically made of several blocks of electrical insulator, as describedabove, improvements in the processes used to make the blocks ofelectrical insulator may increase the reliability of the insulatedconductor. In certain embodiments, the electrical insulator is improvedto have a resistivity that remains substantially constant over timeduring use of the insulated conductor (for example, during production ofheat by an insulated conductor heater).

In some embodiments, electrical insulator blocks (such as magnesiumoxide blocks) are purified to remove impurities that may causedegradation of the blocks over time. For example, raw material used forthe electrical insulator blocks may be heated to higher temperatures toconvert metal oxide impurities to elemental metal (for example, ironoxide impurities may be converted to elemental iron). Elemental metalmay be removed from the raw electrical insulator material more easilythan metal oxide. Thus, purity of the raw electrical insulator materialmay be improved by heating the raw material to higher temperaturesbefore removal of the impurities. The raw material may be heated tohigher temperatures by, for example, using a plasma discharge.

In some embodiments, the electrical insulator blocks are made using hotpressing, a method known in the art for making ceramics. Hot pressing ofthe electrical insulator blocks may get the raw material in the blocksto fuse at points of contact in the insulated conductor heater. Fusingof the blocks at points of contact may improve the electrical propertiesof the electrical insulator.

In some embodiments, the electrical insulator blocks are cooled in anoven using dried or purified air. Using dried or purified air maydecrease the addition of impurities or moisture to the blocks during thecooling process. Removing moisture from the blocks may increase thereliability of electrical properties of the blocks.

In some embodiments, the electrical insulator blocks are not heattreated during the process of making the blocks. Not heat treating theblocks may maintain the resistivity in the blocks and inhibitdegradation of the blocks over time. In some embodiments, the electricalinsulator blocks are heated at slow heating rates to help maintainresistivity in the blocks.

In some embodiments, the core of the insulated conductor is coated witha material that inhibits migration of impurities into the electricalinsulator of the insulated conductor. For example, coating of an Alloy180 core with nickel or Inconel® 625 might inhibit migration ofmaterials from the Alloy 180 into the electrical insulator. In someembodiments, the core is made of material that does not migrate into theelectrical insulator. For example, a carbon steel core may not causedegradation of the electrical insulator over time.

In some embodiments, the electrical insulator is made from powdered rawmaterial such as powdered magnesium oxide. Powdered magnesium oxide mayresist degradation better than other types of magnesium oxide.

In some embodiments, three insulated conductor heaters (for example,mineral insulated conductor heaters) are coupled together into a singleassembly. The single assembly may be built in long lengths and mayoperate at high voltages (for example, voltages of 4000 V nominal). Incertain embodiments, the individual insulated conductor heaters areenclosed in corrosive resistant jackets to resist damage from theexternal environment. The jackets may be, for example, seam weldedstainless steel armor similar to that used on type MC/CWCMC cable.

In some embodiments, three insulated conductor heaters are cabled andthe insulating filler added in conventional methods known in the art.The insulated conductor heaters may include one or more heater sectionsthat resistively heat and provide heat to formation adjacent to theheater sections. The insulated conductors may include one or more othersections that provide electricity to the heater sections with relativelysmall heat loss. The individual insulated conductor heaters may bewrapped with high temperature fiber tapes before being placed on atake-up reel (for example, a coiled tubing rig). The reel assembly maybe moved to another machine for application of an outer metallic sheathor outer protective conduit.

In some embodiments, the fillers include glass, ceramic or othertemperature resistant fibers that withstand operating temperature of760° C. or higher. In addition, the insulated conductor cables may bewrapped in multiple layers of a ceramic fiber woven tape material. Bywrapping the tape around the cabled insulated conductor heaters prior toapplication of the outer metallic sheath, electrical isolation isprovided between the insulated conductor heaters and the outer sheath.This electrical isolation inhibits leakage current from the insulatedconductor heaters passing into the subsurface formation and forces anyleakage currents to return directly to the power source on theindividual insulated conductor sheaths and/or on a lead-in conductor orlead-out conductor coupled to the insulated conductors. The lead-in orlead-out conductors may be coupled to the insulated conductors when theinsulated conductors are placed into an assembly with the outer metallicsheath.

In certain embodiments, the insulated conductor heaters are wrapped witha metallic tape or other type of tape instead of the high temperatureceramic fiber woven tape material. The metallic tape holds the insulatedconductor heaters together. A widely-spaced wide pitch spiral wrappingof a high temperature fiber rope may be wrapped around the insulatedconductor heaters. The fiber rope may provide electrical isolationbetween the insulated conductors and the outer sheath. The fiber ropemay be added at any stage during assembly. For example, the fiber ropemay be added as a part of the final assembly when the outer sheath isadded. Application of the fiber rope may be simpler than otherelectrical isolation methods because application of the fiber rope isdone with only a single layer of rope instead of multiple layers ofceramic tape. The fiber rope may be less expensive than multiple layersof ceramic tape. The fiber rope may increase heat transfer between theinsulated conductors and the outer sheath and/or reduce interferencewith any welding process used to weld the outer sheath around theinsulated conductors (for example, seam welding).

In certain embodiments, an insulated conductor or another type of heateris installed in a wellbore or opening in the formation using outertubing coupled to a coiled tubing rig. FIG. 62 depicts outer tubing 480partially unspooled from coiled tubing rig 482. Outer tubing 480 may bemade of metal or polymeric material. Outer tubing 480 may be a flexibleconduit such as, for example, a tubing guide string or other coiledtubing string. Heater 412 may be pushed into outer tubing 480, as shownin FIG. 63. In certain embodiments, heater 412 is pushed into outertubing 480 by pumping the heater into the outer tubing.

In certain embodiments, one or more flexible cups 484 are coupled to theoutside of heater 412. Flexible cups 484 may have a variety of shapesand/or sizes but typically are shaped and sized to maintain at leastsome pressure inside at least a portion of outer tubing 480 as heater412 is pushed or pumped into the outer tubing. Flexible cups 484 aremade of flexible materials such as, but not limited to, elastomericmaterials. For example, flexible cups 484 may have flexible edges thatprovide limited mechanical resistance as heater 412 is pushed into outertubing 480 but remain in contact with the inner walls of outer tubing480 as the heater is pushed so that pressure is maintained between theheater and the outer tubing. Maintaining at least some pressure in outertubing 480 between flexible cups 484 allows heater 412 to becontinuously pushed into the outer tubing with lower pump pressures.Without flexible cups 484, higher pressures may be needed to push heater412 into outer tubing 480. In some embodiments, cups 484 allow somepressure to be released while maintaining pressure in outer tubing 480.In certain embodiments, flexible cups 484 are spaced to distributepumping forces optimally along heater 412 inside outer tubing 480. Forexample, flexible cups 484 may be evenly spaced along heater 412.

Heater 412 is pushed into outer tubing 480 until the heater is fullyinserted into the outer tubing, as shown in FIG. 64. Drilling guide 486may be coupled to the end of heater 412. Heater 412, outer tubing 480,and drilling guide 486 may be spooled onto coiled tubing rig 482, asshown in FIG. 65. After heater 412, outer tubing 480, and drilling guide486 are spooled onto coiled tubing rig 482, the assembly may betransported to a location for installation of the heater. For example,the assembly may be transported to the location of a subsurface heaterwellbore (opening).

FIG. 66 depicts coiled tubing rig 482 being used to install heater 412and outer tubing 480 into opening 386 using drilling guide 486. Incertain embodiments, opening 386 is an L-shaped opening or wellbore witha substantially horizontal or inclined portion in a hydrocarboncontaining layer of the formation. In such embodiments, heater 412 has aheating section that is placed in the substantially horizontally orinclined portion of opening 386 to be used to heat the hydrocarboncontaining layer. In some embodiments, opening 386 has a horizontal orinclined section that is at least about 1000 m in length, at least about1500 m in length, or at least about 2000 m in length. Overburden casing398 may be located around the outer walls of opening 386 in anoverburden section of the formation. In some embodiments, drilling fluidis left in opening 386 after the opening has been completed (the openinghas been drilled).

FIG. 67 depicts heater 412 and outer tubing 480 installed in opening386. Gap 488 may be left at or near the far end of heater 412 and outertubing 480. Gap 488 may allow for heater expansion in opening 386 afterthe heater is energized.

After heater 412 and outer tubing 480 are installed in opening 386, theouter tubing may be removed from the opening to leave the heater inplace in the opening. FIG. 68 depicts outer tubing 480 being removedfrom opening 386 while leaving heater 412 installed in the opening.Outer tubing 480 is spooled back onto coiled tubing rig 482 as the outertubing is pulled off heater 412. In some embodiments, outer tubing 480is pumped down to balance pressure between opening 386 and the outertubing. Balancing the pressure allows outer tubing 480 to be pulled offheater 412.

FIG. 69 depicts outer tubing 480 used to provide packing material 402into opening 386. As outer tubing 480 reaches the “shoe” or bend inopening 386, the outer tubing may be used to provide packing materialinto the opening. The shoe of opening 386 may be located at or near thebottom of overburden casing 398. Packing material 402 may be provided(for example, pumped) through outer tubing 480 and out the end of theouter tubing at the shoe of opening 386. Packing material 402 isprovided into opening 386 to seal off the opening around heater 412.Packing material 402 provides a barrier between the overburden sectionand the heating section of opening 386. In certain embodiments, packingmaterial 402 is cement or another suitable plugging material. In someembodiments, outer tubing 480 is continuously spooled while packingmaterial 402 is provided into opening 386. Outer tubing 480 may bespooled slowly while packing material 402 is provided into opening 386to allow the packing material to settle into the opening properly.

After packing material 402 is provided into opening 386, outer tubing480 is spooled further onto coiled tubing rig 482, as shown in FIG. 70.FIG. 71 depicts outer tubing 480 spooled onto coiled tubing rig 482 withheater 412 installed in opening 386. In certain embodiments, flexiblecups 484 are spaced in the portion of opening 386 with overburden casing398 to facilitate adequate stand-off of heater 412 in the overburdenportion of the opening. Flexible cups 484 may electrically insulateheater 412 from overburden casing 398. For example, flexible cups 484may space apart heater 412 and overburden casing 398 such that they arenot in physical contact with each other.

After outer tubing 480 is removed from opening 386, wellhead 392 and/orother completions may be installed at the surface of the opening, asshown in FIG. 72. When heater 412 is energized to begin heating,flexible cups 484 may begin to burn or melt off. In some embodiments,flexible cups 484 begin to burn or melt off at low temperatures duringearly stages of the heating process.

In certain embodiments, two or more heaters (for example, insulatedconductor heaters) are helically wound onto a spool (for example, acoiled tubing rig) and then unwound from the spool as the heaters areinstalled into an opening in the subsurface formation. Helically windingthe heaters on the spool reduces stresses on the heaters, particularlythe outside portions of the heater that may otherwise stretch orelongate.

FIG. 73 depicts an embodiment of heaters 412 being helically wound onspool 1364. In some embodiments, spool 1364 is part of coiled tubing rig482 (depicted in FIGS. 62-72). Heaters 412 may be pulled through twisthead 1366 and onto spool 1364. Twist head 1366 rotates as heaters 412are pulled through the twist head and fed onto spool 1364. Because ofthe rotation motion of twist head 1366, heaters 412 are helically woundas they are fed onto spool 1364. To install heaters 412 in theformation, the heaters may be unwound from spool 1364 and installed intothe formation. The helical winding process may be carried out usingtechniques and/or equipment used for making and using helical flowlinebundles for subsea applications described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,843,713 toLangner et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,979,296 to Langner et al., and U.S. Pat.No. 5,390,481 to Langner, all of which are incorporated by reference asif fully set forth herein.

FIG. 74 depicts an embodiment of three heaters 412 helically woundtogether. In some embodiments, three heaters 412 are helically woundtogether around a support. FIG. 75 depicts an embodiment of threeheaters 412 helically wound around support 1368. In some embodiments,one or more clamps 1362 (depicted in FIG. 74) are used to secure heaters412 in the helically wound configuration. Clamps 1362 may be, forexample, glass clamps, glass wraps, or other suitable devices forsecuring heaters 412 and/or securing the heaters to support 1368.

Heaters 412 may be helically wound with a selected pitch in the helicalwinding. In certain embodiments, the selected pitch is between about 5%and 10% (for example, about 7%). In some embodiments, the pitch isvaried or changed to vary the heat output provided by the bundle ofhelically wound heaters. Changing the pitch varies the thickness of thebundle of heaters and, thus, varies the heat output from the bundle. Insome embodiments, the pitch is varied along the length of the heaters tovary the heat output along the length of the heaters.

Helically winding heaters 412 and installing the heaters in the helicalwinding may reduce stresses on parts of the heaters such as theelectrical insulator or jacket of insulated conductor heaters. Helicallywinding heaters 412 may accommodate thermal expansion of the heaters inthe wellbore by, for example, reducing stress on or in the heatersduring thermal expansion of the heaters. In certain embodiments, heaters412 are easier to helically wind if the heaters have a tapered thickness(for example, the heaters are insulated conductors with a taperedthickness).

FIG. 76 depicts an embodiment of a heater in wellbore 490 in formation492. The heater includes insulated conductor 410 in conduit 382 withmaterial 494 between the insulated conductor and the conduit. In someembodiments, insulated conductor 410 is a mineral insulated conductor.Electricity supplied to insulated conductor 410 resistively heats theinsulated conductor. Insulated conductor conductively transfers heat tomaterial 494. Heat may transfer within material 494 by heat conductionand/or by heat convection. Radiant heat from insulated conductor 410and/or heat from material 494 transfers to conduit 382. Heat maytransfer to the formation from the heater by conductive or radiativeheat transfer from conduit 382. Material 494 may be molten metal, moltensalt, or other liquid. In some embodiments, a gas (for example,nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and/or helium) is in conduit 382 abovematerial 494. The gas may inhibit oxidation or other chemical changes ofmaterial 494. The gas may inhibit vaporization of material 494. U.S.Published Patent Application 2008-0078551 to DeVault et al., which isincorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes asystem for placement in a wellbore, the system including a heater in aconduit with a liquid metal between the heater and the conduit forheating subterranean earth.

Insulated conductor 410 and conduit 382 may be placed in an opening in asubsurface formation. Insulated conductor 410 and conduit 382 may haveany orientation in a subsurface formation (for example, the insulatedconductor and conduit may be substantially vertical or substantiallyhorizontally oriented in the formation). Insulated conductor 410includes core 374, electrical insulator 364, and jacket 370. In someembodiments, core 374 is a copper core. In some embodiments, core 374includes other electrical conductors or alloys (for example, copperalloys). In some embodiments, core 374 includes a ferromagneticconductor so that insulated conductor 410 operates as a temperaturelimited heater. In some embodiments, core 374 does not include aferromagnetic conductor.

In some embodiments, core 374 of insulated conductor 410 is made of twoor more portions. The first portion may be placed adjacent to theoverburden. The first portion may be sized and/or made of a highlyconductive material so that the first portion does not resistively heatto a high temperature. One or more other portions of core 410 may besized and/or made of material that resistively heats to a hightemperature. These portions of core 410 may be positioned adjacent tosections of the formation that are to be heated by the heater. In someembodiments, the insulated conductor does not include a highlyconductive first portion. A lead in cable may be coupled to theinsulated conductor to supply electricity to the insulated conductor.

In some embodiments, core 374 of insulated conductor 410 is a highlyconductive material such as copper. Core 374 may be electrically coupledto jacket 370 at or near the end of the insulated conductor. In someembodiments, insulated conductor 410 is electrically coupled to conduit382. Electrical current supplied to insulated conductor 410 mayresistively heat core 374, jacket 370, material 494, and/or conduit 382.Resistive heating of core 374, jacket 370, material 494, and/or conduit382 generates heat that may transfer to the formation.

Electrical insulator 364 may be magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide, silicondioxide, beryllium oxide, boron nitride, silicon nitride, orcombinations thereof. In certain embodiments, electrical insulator 364is a compacted powder of magnesium oxide. In some embodiments,electrical insulator 364 includes beads of silicon nitride. In certainembodiments, a thin layer of material is clad over core 374 to inhibitthe core from migrating into the electrical insulator at highertemperatures (to inhibit copper of the core from migrating intomagnesium oxide of the insulation). For example, a small layer of nickel(for example, about 0.5 mm of nickel) may be clad on core 374.

In some embodiments, material 494 may be relatively corrosive. Jacket370 and/or at least the inside surface of conduit 382 may be made of acorrosion resistant material such as, but not limited to, nickel, AlloyN (Carpenter Metals), 347 stainless steel, 347H stainless steel, 446stainless steel, or 825 stainless steel. For example, conduit 382 may beplated or lined with nickel. In some embodiments, material 494 may berelatively non-corrosive. Jacket 370 and/or at least the inside surfaceof conduit 382 may be made of a material such as carbon steel.

In some embodiments, jacket 370 of insulated conductor 410 is not usedas the main return of electrical current for the insulated conductor. Inembodiments where material 494 is a good electrical conductor such as amolten metal, current returns through the molten metal in the conduitand/or through the conduit 382. In some embodiments, conduit 382 is madeof a ferromagnetic material, (for example 410 stainless steel). Conduit382 may function as a temperature limited heater until the temperatureof the conduit approaches, reaches or exceeds the Curie temperature orphase transition temperature of the conduit material.

In some embodiments, material 494 returns electrical current to thesurface from insulated conductor 410 (the material acts as the return orground conductor for the insulated conductor). Material 494 may providea current path with low resistance so that a long insulated conductor410 is useable in conduit 382. The long heater may operate at lowvoltages for the length of the heater due to the presence of material494 that is conductive.

FIG. 77 depicts an embodiment of a portion of insulated conductor 410 inconduit 382 wherein material 494 is a good conductor (for example, aliquid metal) and current flow is indicated by the arrows. Current flowsdown core 374 and returns through jacket 370, material 494, and conduit382. Jacket 370 and conduit 382 may be at approximately constantpotential. Current flows radially from jacket 370 to conduit 382 throughmaterial 494. Material 494 may resistively heat. Heat from material 494may transfer through conduit 382 into the formation.

In embodiments where material 494 is partially electrically conductive(for example, the material is a molten salt), current returns mainlythrough jacket 370. All or a portion of the current that passes throughpartially conductive material 494 may pass to ground through conduit382.

In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 76, core 374 of insulated conductor410 has a diameter of about 1 cm, electrical insulator 364 has anoutside diameter of about 1.6 cm, and jacket 370 has an outside diameterof about 1.8 cm. In other embodiments, the insulated conductor issmaller. For example, core 374 has a diameter of about 0.5 cm,electrical insulator 364 has an outside diameter of about 0.8 cm, andjacket 370 has an outside diameter of about 0.9 cm. Other insulatedconductor geometries may be used. For the same size conduit 382, thesmaller geometry of insulated conductor 410 may result in a higheroperating temperature of the insulated conductor to achieve the sametemperature at the conduit. The smaller geometry insulated conductorsmay be significantly more economically favorable due to manufacturingcost, weight, and other factors.

Material 494 may be placed between the outside surface of insulatedconductor 410 and the inside surface of conduit 382. In certainembodiments, material 494 is placed in the conduit in a solid form asballs or pellets. Material 494 may melt below the operating temperaturesof insulated conductor 410. Material may melt above ambient subsurfaceformation temperatures. Material 494 may be placed in conduit 382 afterinsulated conductor 410 is placed in the conduit. In certainembodiments, material 494 is placed in conduit 410 as a liquid. Theliquid may be placed in conduit 382 before or after insulated conductor410 is placed in the conduit (for example, the molten liquid may bepoured into the conduit before or after the insulated conductor isplaced in the conduit). Additionally, material 494 may be placed inconduit 382 before or after insulated conductor 410 is energized(supplied with electricity). Material 494 may be added to conduit 382 orremoved from the conduit after operation of the heater is initialized.Material 494 may be added to or removed from conduit 382 to maintain adesired head of fluid in the conduit. In some embodiments, the amount ofmaterial 494 in conduit 382 may be adjusted (added to or depleted) toadjust or balance the stresses on the conduit. Material 494 may inhibitdeformation of conduit 382. The head of material 494 in conduit 382 mayinhibit the formation from crushing or otherwise deforming the conduitshould the formation expand against the conduit. The head of fluid inconduit 382 allows the wall of the conduit to be relatively thin. Havingthin conduits 382 may increase the economic viability of using multipleheaters of this type to heat portions of the formation.

Material 494 may support insulated conductor 410 in conduit 382. Thesupport provided by material 494 of insulated conductor 410 may allowfor the deployment of long insulated conductors as compared to insulatedconductors positioned only in a gas in a conduit without the use ofspecial metallurgy to accommodate the weight of the insulated conductor.In certain embodiments, insulated conductor 410 is buoyant in material494 in conduit 382. For example, insulated conductor may be buoyant inmolten metal. The buoyancy of insulated conductor 410 reduces creepassociated problems in long, substantially vertical heaters. A bottomweight or tie down may be coupled to the bottom of insulated conductor410 to inhibit the insulated conductor from floating in material 494.

Material 494 may remain a liquid at operating temperatures of insulatedconductor 410. In some embodiments, material 494 melts at temperaturesabove about 100° C., above about 200° C., or above about 300° C. Theinsulated conductor may operate at temperatures greater than 200° C.,greater than 400° C., greater than 600° C., or greater than 800° C. Incertain embodiments, material 494 provides enhanced heat transfer frominsulated conductor 410 to conduit 382 at or near the operatingtemperatures of the insulated conductor.

Material 494 may include metals such as tin, zinc, an alloy such as a60% by weight tin, 40% by weight zinc alloy; bismuth; indium; cadmium,aluminum; lead; and/or combinations thereof (for example, eutecticalloys of these metals such as binary or ternary alloys). In oneembodiment, material 494 is tin. Some liquid metals may be corrosive.The jacket of the insulated conductor and/or at least the inside surfaceof the canister may need to be made of a material that is resistant tothe corrosion of the liquid metal. The jacket of the insulated conductorand/or at least the inside surface of the conduit may be made ofmaterials that inhibit the molten metal from leaching materials from theinsulating conductor and/or the conduit to form eutectic compositions ormetal alloys. Molten metals may be highly thermal conductive, but mayblock radiant heat transfer from the insulated conductor and/or haverelatively small heat transfer by natural convection.

Material 494 may be or include molten salts such as solar salt, saltspresented in Table 1, or other salts. The molten salts may be infraredtransparent to aid in heat transfer from the insulated conductor to thecanister. In some embodiments, solar salt includes sodium nitrate andpotassium nitrate (for example, about 60% by weight sodium nitrate andabout 40% by weight potassium nitrate). Solar salt melts at about 220°C. and is chemically stable up to temperatures of about 593° C. Othersalts that may be used include, but are not limited to LiNO₃ (melttemperature (T_(m)) of 264° C. and a decomposition temperature of about600° C.) and eutectic mixtures such as 53% by weight KNO₃, 40% by weightNaNO₃ and 7% by weight NaNO₂ (T_(m) of about 142° C. and an upperworking temperature of over 500° C.); 45.5% by weight KNO₃ and 54.5% byweight NaNO₂ (T_(m) of about 142-145° C. and an upper workingtemperature of over 500° C.); or 50% by weight NaCl and 50% by weightSrCl₂ (T_(m) of about 19° C. and an upper working temperature of over1200° C.).

TABLE 1 Material T_(m) (° C.) T_(b) (° C.) Zn 420 907 CdBr₂ 568 863 CdI₂388 744 CuBr₂ 498 900 PbBr₂ 371 892 TlBr 460 819 TlF 326 826 ThI₄ 566837 SnF₂ 215 850 SnI₂ 320 714 ZnCl₂ 290 732

Some molten salts, such as solar salt, may be relatively non-corrosiveso that the conduit and/or the jacket may be made of relativelyinexpensive material (for example, carbon steel). Some molten salts mayhave good thermal conductivity, may have high heat density, and mayresult in large heat transfer by natural convection.

In fluid mechanics, the Rayleigh number is a dimensionless numberassociated with heat transfer in a fluid. When the Rayleigh number isbelow the critical value for the fluid, heat transfer is primarily inthe form of conduction; and when the Rayleigh number is above thecritical value, heat transfer is primarily in the form of convection.The Rayleigh number is the product of the Grashof number (whichdescribes the relationship between buoyancy and viscosity in a fluid)and the Prandtl number (which describes the relationship betweenmomentum diffusivity and thermal diffusivity). For the same sizeinsulated conductors in conduits, and where the temperature of theconduit is 500° C., the Rayleigh number for solar salt in the conduit isabout 10 times the Rayleigh number for tin in the conduit. The higherRayleigh number implies that the strength of natural convection in themolten solar salt is much stronger than the strength of the naturalconvection in molten tin. The stronger natural convection of molten saltmay distribute heat and inhibit the formation of hot spots at locationsalong the length of the conduit. Hot spots may be caused by coke buildup at isolated locations adjacent to or on the conduit, contact of theconduit by the formation at isolated locations, and/or other highthermal load situations.

Conduit 382 may be a carbon steel or stainless steel canister. In someembodiments, conduit 382 may include cladding on the outer surface toinhibit corrosion of the conduit by formation fluid. Conduit 382 mayinclude cladding on an inner surface of the conduit that is corrosionresistant to material 494 in the conduit. Cladding applied to conduit382 may be a coating and/or a liner. If the conduit contains a metalsalt, the inner surface of the conduit may include coating of nickel, orthe conduit may be or include a liner of a corrosion resistant metalsuch as Alloy N. If the conduit contains a molten metal, the conduit mayinclude a corrosion resistant metal liner or coating, and/or a ceramiccoating (for example, a porcelain coating or fired enamel coating). Inan embodiment, conduit 382 is a canister of 410 stainless steel with anoutside diameter of about 6 cm. Conduit 382 may not need a thick wallbecause material 494 may provide internal pressure that inhibitsdeformation or crushing of the conduit due to external stresses.

FIG. 78 depicts an embodiment of the heater positioned in wellbore 490of formation 492 with a portion of insulated conductor 410 and conduit382 oriented substantially horizontally in the formation. Material 494may provide a head in conduit 382 due to the pressure of the material.The pressure head may keep material 494 in conduit 382. The pressurehead may also provide internal pressure that inhibits deformation orcollapse of conduit 382 due to external stresses.

In some embodiments, two or more insulated conductors are placed in theconduit. In some embodiments, only one of the insulated conductors isenergized. Should the energized conductor fail, one of the otherconductors may be energized to maintain the material in a molten phase.The failed insulated conductor may be removed and/or replaced.

The conduit of the heater may be a ribbed conduit. The ribbed conduitmay improve the heat transfer characteristics of the conduit as comparedto a cylindrical conduit. FIG. 79 depicts a cross-sectionalrepresentation of ribbed conduit 496. FIG. 80 depicts a perspective viewof a portion of ribbed conduit 496. Ribbed conduit 496 may include rings498 and ribs 500. Rings 498 and ribs 500 may improve the heat transfercharacteristics of ribbed conduit 496. In an embodiment, the cylinder ofconduit has an inner diameter of about 5.1 cm and a wall thickness ofabout 0.57 cm. Rings 498 may be spaced about every 3.8 cm. Rings 498 mayhave a height of about 1.9 cm and a thickness of about 0.5 cm. Six ribs500 may be spaced evenly about conduit 382. Ribs 500 may have athickness of about 0.5 cm and a height of about 1.6 cm. Other dimensionsfor the cylinder, rings and ribs may be used. Ribbed conduit 496 may beformed from two or more rolled pieces that are welded together to formthe ribbed conduit. Other types of conduit with extra surface area toenhance heat transfer from the conduit to the formation may be used.

In some embodiments, the ribbed conduit may be used as the conduit of aconductor-in-conduit heater. For example, the conductor may be a 3.05 cm410 stainless steel rod and the conduit has dimensions as describedabove. In other embodiments, the conductor is an insulated conductor anda fluid is positioned between the conductor and the ribbed conduit. Thefluid may be a gas or liquid at operating temperatures of the insulatedconductor.

In some embodiments, the heat source for the heater is not an insulatedconductor. For example, the heat source may be hot fluid circulatedthrough an inner conduit positioned in an outer conduit. The materialmay be positioned between the inner conduit and the outer conduit.Convection currents in the material may help to more evenly distributeheat to the formation and may inhibit or limit formation of a hot spotwhere insulation that limits heat transfer to the overburden ends. Insome embodiments, the heat sources are downhole oxidizers. The materialis placed between an outer conduit and an oxidizer conduit. The oxidizerconduit may be an exhaust conduit for the oxidizers or the oxidantconduit if the oxidizers are positioned in a u-shaped wellbore withexhaust gases exiting the formation through one of the legs of theu-shaped conduit. The material may help inhibit the formation of hotspots adjacent to the oxidizers of the oxidizer assembly.

The material to be heated by the insulated conductor may be placed in anopen wellbore. FIG. 81 depicts material 494 in open wellbore 490 information 492 with insulated conductor 410 in the wellbore. In someembodiments, a gas (for example, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and/orhelium) is placed in wellbore 490 above material 494. The gas mayinhibit oxidation or other chemical changes of material 494. The gas mayinhibit vaporization of material 494.

Material 494 may have a melting point that is above the pyrolysistemperature of hydrocarbons in the formation. The melting point ofmaterial 494 may be above 375° C., above 400° C., or above 425° C. Theinsulated conductor may be energized to heat the formation. Heat fromthe insulated conductor may pyrolyze hydrocarbons in the formation.Adjacent the wellbore, the heat from insulated conductor 410 may resultin coking that reduces the permeability and plugs the formation nearwellbore 490. The plugged formation inhibits material 494 from leakingfrom wellbore 490 into formation 492 when the material is a liquid. Insome embodiments, material 494 is a salt.

In some embodiments, material 494 leaking from wellbore 490 intoformation 492 may be self-healing and/or self-sealing. Material 494flowing away from wellbore 490 may travel until the temperature becomesless than the solidification temperature of the material. Temperaturemay drop rapidly a relatively small distance away from the heater usedto maintain material 494 in a liquid state. The rapid drop off intemperature may result in migrating material 494 solidifying close towellbore 490. Solidified material 494 may inhibit migration ofadditional material from wellbore 490, and thus self-heal and/orself-seal the wellbore.

Return electrical current for insulated conductor 410 may return throughjacket 370 of the insulated conductor. Any current that passes throughmaterial 494 may pass to ground. Above the level of material 494, anyremaining return electrical current may be confined to jacket 370 ofinsulated conductor 410.

Using liquid material in open wellbores heated by heaters may allow fordelivery of high power rates (for example, up to about 2000 W/m) to theformation with relatively low heater surface temperatures. Hot spotgeneration in the formation may be reduced or eliminated due toconvection smoothing out the temperature profile along the length of theheater. Natural convection occurring in the wellbore may greatly enhanceheat transfer from the heater to the formation. Also, the large gapbetween the formation and the heater may prevent thermal expansion ofthe formation from harming the heater.

In some embodiments, an 8 inch (20.3 cm) wellbore may be formed in theformation. In some embodiments, casing may be placed through all or aportion of the overburden. A 0.6 inch (1.5 cm) diameter insulatedconductor heater may be placed in the wellbore. The wellbore may befilled with solid material (for example, solid particles of salt). Apacker may be placed near an interface between the treatment area andthe overburden. In some embodiments, a pass through conduit in thepacker may be included to allow for the addition of more material to thetreatment area. A non-reactive or substantially non-reactive gas (forexample, carbon dioxide and/or nitrogen) may be introduced into thewellbore. The insulated conductor may be energized to begin the heatingthat melts the solid material and heats the treatment area.

In some embodiments, other types of heat sources besides for insulatedconductors are used to heat the material placed in the open wellbore.The other types of heat sources may include gas burners, pipes throughwhich hot heat transfer fluid flows, or other types of heaters.

In some embodiments, heat pipes are placed in the formation. The heatpipes may reduce the number of active heat sources needed to heat atreatment area of a given size. The heat pipes may reduce the timeneeded to heat the treatment area of a given size to a desired averagetemperature. A heat pipe is a closed system that utilizes phase changeof fluid in the heat pipe to transport heat applied to a first region toa second region remote from the first region. The phase change of thefluid allows for large heat transfer rates. Heat may be applied to thefirst region of the heat pipes from any type of heat source, includingbut not limited to, electric heaters, oxidizers, heat provided fromgeothermal sources, and/or heat provided from nuclear reactors.

Heat pipes are passive heat transport systems that include no movingparts. Heat pipes may be positioned in near horizontal to verticalconfigurations. The fluid used in heat pipes for heating the formationmay have a low cost, a low melting temperature, a boiling temperaturethat is not too high (for example, generally below about 900° C.), a lowviscosity at temperatures below about 540° C., a high heat ofvaporization, and a low corrosion rate for the heat pipe material. Insome embodiments, the heat pipe includes a liner of material that isresistant to corrosion by the fluid. TABLE 1 shows melting and boilingtemperatures for several materials that may be used as the fluid in heatpipes. Other salts that may be used include, but are not limited toLiNO₃, and eutectic mixtures such as 53% by weight KNO₃; 40% by weightNaNO₃ and 7% by weight NaNO₂; 45.5% by weight KNO₃ and 54.5% by weightNaNO₂; or 50% by weight NaCl and 50% by weight SrCl₂.

FIG. 82 depicts schematic cross-sectional representation of a portion ofa formation with heat pipes 502 positioned adjacent to a substantiallyhorizontal portion of heat source 202. Heat source 202 is placed in awellbore in the formation. Heat source 202 may be a gas burner assembly,an electrical heater, a leg of a circulation system that circulates hotfluid through the formation, or other type of heat source. Heat pipes502 may be placed in the formation so that distal ends of the heat pipesare near or contact heat source 202. In some embodiments, heat pipes 502mechanically attach to heat source 202. Heat pipes 502 may be spaced adesired distance apart. In an embodiment, heat pipes 502 are spacedapart by about 40 feet. In other embodiments, large or smaller spacingsare used. Heat pipes 502 may be placed in a regular pattern with eachheat pipe spaced a given distance from the next heat pipe. In someembodiments, heat pipes 502 are placed in an irregular pattern. Anirregular pattern may be used to provide a greater amount of heat to aselected portion or portions of the formation. Heat pipes 502 may bevertically positioned in the formation. In some embodiments, heat pipes502 are placed at an angle in the formation.

Heat pipes 502 may include sealed conduit 504, seal 506, liquid heattransfer fluid 508 and vaporized heat transfer fluid 510. In someembodiments, heat pipes 502 include metal mesh or wicking material thatincreases the surface area for condensation and/or promotes flow of theheat transfer fluid in the heat pipe. Conduit 504 may have first portion512 and second portion 514. Liquid heat transfer fluid 508 may be infirst portion 512. Heat source 202 external to heat pipe 502 suppliesheat that vaporizes liquid heat transfer fluid 508. Vaporized heattransfer fluid 510 diffuses into second portion 514. Vaporized heattransfer fluid 510 condenses in second portion and transfers heat toconduit 504, which in turn transfers heat to the formation. Thecondensed liquid heat transfer fluid 508 flows by gravity to firstportion 512.

Position of seal 506 is a factor in determining the effective length ofheat pipe 502. The effective length of heat pipe 502 may also depend onthe physical properties of the heat transfer fluid and thecross-sectional area of conduit 504. Enough heat transfer fluid may beplaced in conduit 504 so that some liquid heat transfer fluid 508 ispresent in first portion 512 at all times.

Seal 506 may provide a top seal for conduit 504. In some embodiments,conduit 504 is purged with nitrogen, helium or other fluid prior tobeing loaded with heat transfer fluid and sealed. In some embodiments, avacuum may be drawn on conduit 504 to evacuate the conduit before theconduit is sealed. Drawing a vacuum on conduit 504 before sealing theconduit may enhance vapor diffusion throughout the conduit. In someembodiments, an oxygen getter may be introduced in conduit 504 to reactwith any oxygen present in the conduit.

FIG. 83 depicts a perspective cut-out representation of a portion of aheat pipe embodiment with heat pipe 502 located radially around oxidizerassembly 516. Oxidizers 518 of oxidizer assembly 516 are positionedadjacent to first portion 512 of heat pipe 502. Fuel may be supplied tooxidizers 518 through fuel conduit 520. Oxidant may be supplied tooxidizers 518 through oxidant conduit 522. Exhaust gas may flow throughthe space between outer conduit 524 and oxidant conduit 522. Oxidizers518 combust fuel to provide heat that vaporizes liquid heat transferfluid 508. Vaporized heat transfer fluid 510 rises in heat pipe 502 andcondenses on walls of the heat pipe to transfer heat to sealed conduit504. Exhaust gas from oxidizers 518 provides heat along the length ofsealed conduit 504. The heat provided by the exhaust gas along theeffective length of heat pipe 502 may increase convective heat transferand/or reduce the lag time before significant heat is provided to theformation from the heat pipe along the effective length of the heatpipe.

FIG. 84 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an angled heat pipeembodiment with oxidizer assembly 516 located near a lowermost portionof heat pipe 502. Fuel may be supplied to oxidizers 518 through fuelconduit 520. Oxidant may be supplied to oxidizers 518 through oxidantconduit 522. Exhaust gas may flow through the space between outerconduit 524 and oxidant conduit 522.

FIG. 85 depicts a perspective cut-out representation of a portion of aheat pipe embodiment with oxidizer 518 located at the bottom of heatpipe 502. Fuel may be supplied to oxidizer 518 through fuel conduit 520.Oxidant may be supplied to oxidizer 518 through oxidant conduit 522.Exhaust gas may flow through the space between the outer wall of heatpipe 502 and outer conduit 524. Oxidizer 518 combusts fuel to provideheat that vaporizers liquid heat transfer fluid 508. Vaporized heattransfer fluid 510 rises in heat pipe 502 and condenses on walls of theheat pipe to transfer heat to sealed conduit 504. Exhaust gas fromoxidizers 518 provides heat along the length of sealed conduit 504 andto outer conduit 524. The heat provided by the exhaust gas along theeffective length of heat pipe 502 may increase convective heat transferand/or reduce the lag time before significant heat is provided to theformation from the heat pipe and oxidizer combination along theeffective length of the heat pipe. FIG. 86 depicts a similar embodimentwith heat pipe 502 positioned at an angle in the formation.

FIG. 87 depicts a perspective cut-out representation of a portion of aheat pipe embodiment with oxidizer 518 that produces flame zone adjacentto liquid heat transfer fluid 508 in the bottom of heat pipe 502. Fuelmay be supplied to oxidizer 518 through fuel conduit 520. Oxidant may besupplied to oxidizer 518 through oxidant conduit 522. Oxidant and fuelare mixed and combusted to produce flame zone 526. Flame zone 526provides heat that vaporizes liquid heat transfer fluid 508. Exhaustgases from oxidizer 518 may flow through the space between oxidantconduit 522 and the inner surface of heat pipe 502, and through thespace between the outer surface of the heat pipe and outer conduit 524.The heat provided by the exhaust gas along the effective length of heatpipe 502 may increase convective heat transfer and/or reduce the lagtime before significant heat is provided to the formation from the heatpipe and oxidizer combination along the effective length of the heatpipe.

FIG. 88 depicts a perspective cut-out representation of a portion of aheat pipe embodiment with a tapered bottom that accommodates multipleoxidizers of an oxidizer assembly. In some embodiments, efficient heatpipe operation requires a high heat input. Multiple oxidizers ofoxidizer assembly 516 may provide high heat input to liquid heattransfer fluid 508 of heat pipe 502. A portion of oxidizer assembly withthe oxidizers may be helically wound around a tapered portion of heatpipe 502. The tapered portion may have a large surface area toaccommodate the oxidizers. Fuel may be supplied to the oxidizers ofoxidizer assembly 516 through fuel conduit 520. Oxidant may be suppliedto oxidizer 518 through oxidant conduit 522. Exhaust gas may flowthrough the space between the outer wall of heat pipe 502 and outerconduit 524. Exhaust gas from oxidizers 518 provides heat along thelength of sealed conduit 504 and to outer conduit 524. The heat providedby the exhaust gas along the effective length of heat pipe 502 mayincrease convective heat transfer and/or reduce the lag time beforesignificant heat is provided to the formation from the heat pipe andoxidizer combination along the effective length of the heat pipe.

FIG. 89 depicts a cross-sectional representation of a heat pipeembodiment that is angled within the formation. First wellbore 528 andsecond wellbore 530 are drilled in the formation using magnetic rangingor techniques so that the first wellbore intersects the second wellbore.Heat pipe 502 may be positioned in first wellbore 528. First wellbore528 may be sloped so that liquid heat transfer fluid 508 within heatpipe 502 is positioned near the intersection of the first wellbore andsecond wellbore 530. Oxidizer assembly 516 may be positioned in secondwellbore 530. Oxidizer assembly 516 provides heat to heat pipe 502 thatvaporizes liquid heat transfer fluid in the heat pipe. Packer or seal532 may direct exhaust gas from oxidizer assembly 516 through firstwellbore 528 to provide additional heat to the formation from theexhaust gas.

In some embodiments, the temperature limited heater is used to achievelower temperature heating (for example, for heating fluids in aproduction well, heating a surface pipeline, or reducing the viscosityof fluids in a wellbore or near wellbore region). Varying theferromagnetic materials of the temperature limited heater allows forlower temperature heating. In some embodiments, the ferromagneticconductor is made of material with a lower Curie temperature than thatof 446 stainless steel. For example, the ferromagnetic conductor may bean alloy of iron and nickel. The alloy may have between 30% by weightand 42% by weight nickel with the rest being iron. In one embodiment,the alloy is Invar 36. Invar 36 is 36% by weight nickel in iron and hasa Curie temperature of 277° C. In some embodiments, an alloy is a threecomponent alloy with, for example, chromium, nickel, and iron. Forexample, an alloy may have 6% by weight chromium, 42% by weight nickel,and 52% by weight iron. A 2.5 cm diameter rod of Invar 36 has a turndownratio of approximately 2 to 1 at the Curie temperature. Placing theInvar 36 alloy over a copper core may allow for a smaller rod diameter.A copper core may result in a high turndown ratio. The insulator inlower temperature heater embodiments may be made of a high performancepolymer insulator (such as PFA or PEEK™) when used with alloys with aCurie temperature that is below the melting point or softening point ofthe polymer insulator.

In certain embodiments, a conductor-in-conduit temperature limitedheater is used in lower temperature applications by using lower Curietemperature and/or the phase transformation temperature rangeferromagnetic materials. For example, a lower Curie temperature and/orthe phase transformation temperature range ferromagnetic material may beused for heating inside sucker pump rods. Heating sucker pump rods maybe useful to lower the viscosity of fluids in the sucker pump or rodand/or to maintain a lower viscosity of fluids in the sucker pump rod.Lowering the viscosity of the oil may inhibit sticking of a pump used topump the fluids. Fluids in the sucker pump rod may be heated up totemperatures less than about 250° C. or less than about 300° C.Temperatures need to be maintained below these values to inhibit cokingof hydrocarbon fluids in the sucker pump system.

In certain embodiments, a temperature limited heater includes a flexiblecable (for example, a furnace cable) as the inner conductor. Forexample, the inner conductor may be a 27% nickel-clad or stainlesssteel-clad stranded copper wire with four layers of mica tape surroundedby a layer of ceramic and/or mineral fiber (for example, alumina fiber,aluminosilicate fiber, borosilicate fiber, or aluminoborosilicatefiber). A stainless steel-clad stranded copper wire furnace cable may beavailable from Anomet Products, Inc. The inner conductor may be ratedfor applications at temperatures of 1000° C. or higher. The innerconductor may be pulled inside a conduit. The conduit may be aferromagnetic conduit (for example, a ¾″ Schedule 80 446 stainless steelpipe). The conduit may be covered with a layer of copper, or otherelectrical conductor, with a thickness of about 0.3 cm or any othersuitable thickness. The assembly may be placed inside a support conduit(for example, a 1¼″ Schedule 80 347H or 347HH stainless steel tubular).The support conduit may provide additional creep-rupture strength andprotection for the copper and the inner conductor. For uses attemperatures greater than about 1000° C., the inner copper conductor maybe plated with a more corrosion resistant alloy (for example, Incoloy®825) to inhibit oxidation. In some embodiments, the top of thetemperature limited heater is sealed to inhibit air from contacting theinner conductor.

FIG. 90 depicts an embodiment of three heaters coupled in a three-phaseconfiguration. Conductor “legs” 534, 536, 538 are coupled to three-phasetransformer 414. Transformer 414 may be an isolated three-phasetransformer. In certain embodiments, transformer 414 providesthree-phase output in a wye configuration. Input to transformer 414 maybe made in any input configuration, such as the shown deltaconfiguration. Legs 534, 536, 538 each include lead-in conductors 540 inthe overburden of the formation coupled to heating elements 542 inhydrocarbon layer 388. Lead-in conductors 540 include copper with aninsulation layer. For example, lead-in conductors 540 may be a 4-0copper cables with TEFLON® insulation, a copper rod with polyurethaneinsulation, or other metal conductors such as bare copper or aluminum.In certain embodiments, lead-in conductors 540 are located in anoverburden portion of the formation. The overburden portion may includeoverburden casings 398. Heating elements 542 may be temperature limitedheater heating elements. In an embodiment, heating elements 542 are 410stainless steel rods (for example, 3.1 cm diameter 410 stainless steelrods). In some embodiments, heating elements 542 are compositetemperature limited heater heating elements (for example, 347 stainlesssteel, 410 stainless steel, copper composite heating elements; 347stainless steel, iron, copper composite heating elements; or 410stainless steel and copper composite heating elements). In certainembodiments, heating elements 542 have a length of about 10 m to about2000 m, about 20 m to about 400 m, or about 30 m to about 300 m.

In certain embodiments, heating elements 542 are exposed to hydrocarbonlayer 388 and fluids from the hydrocarbon layer. Thus, heating elements542 are “bare metal” or “exposed metal” heating elements. Heatingelements 542 may be made from a material that has an acceptablesulfidation rate at high temperatures used for pyrolyzing hydrocarbons.In certain embodiments, heating elements 542 are made from material thathas a sulfidation rate that decreases with increasing temperature overat least a certain temperature range (for example, 500° C. to 650° C.,530° C. to 650° C., or 550° C. to 650° C.). For example, 410 stainlesssteel may have a sulfidation rate that decreases with increasingtemperature between 530° C. and 650° C. Using such materials reducescorrosion problems due to sulfur-containing gases (such as H₂S) from theformation. In certain embodiments, heating elements 542 are made frommaterial that has a sulfidation rate below a selected value in atemperature range. In some embodiments, heating elements 542 are madefrom material that has a sulfidation rate at most about 25 mils per yearat a temperature between about 800° C. and about 880° C. In someembodiments, the sulfidation rate is at most about 35 mils per year at atemperature between about 800° C. and about 880° C., at most about 45mils per year at a temperature between about 800° C. and about 880° C.,or at most about 55 mils per year at a temperature between about 800° C.and about 880° C. Heating elements 542 may also be substantially inertto galvanic corrosion.

In some embodiments, heating elements 542 have a thin electricallyinsulating layer such as aluminum oxide or thermal spray coated aluminumoxide. In some embodiments, the thin electrically insulating layer is aceramic composition such as an enamel coating. Enamel coatings include,but are not limited to, high temperature porcelain enamels. Hightemperature porcelain enamels may include silicon dioxide, boron oxide,alumina, and alkaline earth oxides (CaO or MgO), and minor amounts ofalkali oxides (Na₂O, K₂O, LiO). The enamel coating may be applied as afinely ground slurry by dipping the heating element into the slurry orspray coating the heating element with the slurry. The coated heatingelement is then heated in a furnace until the glass transitiontemperature is reached so that the slurry spreads over the surface ofthe heating element and makes the porcelain enamel coating. Theporcelain enamel coating contracts when cooled below the glasstransition temperature so that the coating is in compression. Thus, whenthe coating is heated during operation of the heater, the coating isable to expand with the heater without cracking.

The thin electrically insulating layer has low thermal impedanceallowing heat transfer from the heating element to the formation whileinhibiting current leakage between heating elements in adjacent openingsand/or current leakage into the formation. In certain embodiments, thethin electrically insulating layer is stable at temperatures above atleast 350° C., above 500° C., or above 800° C. In certain embodiments,the thin electrically insulating layer has an emissivity of at least0.7, at least 0.8, or at least 0.9. Using the thin electricallyinsulating layer may allow for long heater lengths in the formation withlow current leakage.

Heating elements 542 may be coupled to contacting elements 544 at ornear the underburden of the formation. Contacting elements 544 arecopper or aluminum rods or other highly conductive materials. In certainembodiments, transition sections 546 are located between lead-inconductors 540 and heating elements 542, and/or between heating elements542 and contacting elements 544. Transition sections 546 may be made ofa conductive material that is corrosion resistant such as 347 stainlesssteel over a copper core. In certain embodiments, transition sections546 are made of materials that electrically couple lead-in conductors540 and heating elements 542 while providing little or no heat output.Thus, transition sections 546 help to inhibit overheating of conductorsand insulation used in lead-in conductors 540 by spacing the lead-inconductors from heating elements 542. Transition section 546 may have alength of between about 3 m and about 9 m (for example, about 6 m).

Contacting elements 544 are coupled to contactor 548 in contactingsection 550 to electrically couple legs 534, 536, 538 to each other. Insome embodiments, contact solution 552 (for example, conductive cement)is placed in contacting section 550 to electrically couple contactingelements 544 in the contacting section. In certain embodiments, legs534, 536, 538 are substantially parallel in hydrocarbon layer 388 andleg 534 continues substantially vertically into contacting section 550.The other two legs 536, 538 are directed (for example, by directionallydrilling the wellbores for the legs) to intercept leg 534 in contactingsection 550.

Each leg 534, 536, 538 may be one leg of a three-phase heater embodimentso that the legs are substantially electrically isolated from otherheaters in the formation and are substantially electrically isolatedfrom the formation. Legs 534, 536, 538 may be arranged in a triangularpattern so that the three legs form a triangular shaped three-phaseheater. In an embodiment, legs 534, 536, 538 are arranged in atriangular pattern with 12 m spacing between the legs (each side of thetriangle has a length of 12 m).

FIG. 91 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment of asubstantially u-shaped three-phase heater. First ends of legs 534, 536,538 are coupled to transformer 414 at first location 554. In anembodiment, transformer 414 is a three-phase AC transformer. Ends oflegs 534, 536, 538 are electrically coupled together with connector 556at second location 558. Connector 556 electrically couples the ends oflegs 534, 536, 538 so that the legs can be operated in a three-phaseconfiguration. In certain embodiments, legs 534, 536, 538 are coupled tooperate in a three-phase wye configuration. In certain embodiments, legs534, 536, 538 are substantially parallel in hydrocarbon layer 388. Incertain embodiments, legs 534, 536, 538 are arranged in a triangularpattern in hydrocarbon layer 388. In certain embodiments, heatingelements 542 include thin electrically insulating material (such as aporcelain enamel coating) to inhibit current leakage from the heatingelements. In certain embodiments, the thin electrically insulating layerallows for relatively long, substantially horizontal heater leg lengthsin the hydrocarbon layer with a substantially u-shaped heater. Incertain embodiments, legs 534, 536, 538 are electrically coupled so thatthe legs are substantially electrically isolated from other heaters inthe formation and are substantially electrically isolated from theformation.

In certain embodiments, overburden casings (for example, overburdencasings 398, depicted in FIGS. 90 and 91) in overburden 400 includematerials that inhibit ferromagnetic effects in the casings. Inhibitingferromagnetic effects in casings 398 reduces heat losses to theoverburden. In some embodiments, casings 398 may include non-metallicmaterials such as fiberglass, polyvinylchloride (PVC), chlorinatedpolyvinylchloride (CPVC), or high-density polyethylene (HDPE). HDPEswith working temperatures in a range for use in overburden 400 includeHDPEs available from Dow Chemical Co., Inc. (Midland, Mich., U.S.A.). Anon-metallic casing may also eliminate the need for an insulatedoverburden conductor. In some embodiments, casings 398 include carbonsteel coupled on the inside diameter of a non-ferromagnetic metal (forexample, carbon steel clad with copper or aluminum) to inhibitferromagnetic effects or inductive effects in the carbon steel. Othernon-ferromagnetic metals include, but are not limited to, manganesesteels with at least 10% by weight manganese, iron aluminum alloys withat least 18% by weight aluminum, and austentitic stainless steels suchas 304 stainless steel or 316 stainless steel.

In certain embodiments, one or more non-ferromagnetic materials used incasings 398 are used in a wellhead coupled to the casings and legs 534,536, 538. Using non-ferromagnetic materials in the wellhead inhibitsundesirable heating of components in the wellhead. In some embodiments,a purge gas (for example, carbon dioxide, nitrogen or argon) isintroduced into the wellhead and/or inside of casings 398 to inhibitreflux of heated gases into the wellhead and/or the casings.

In certain embodiments, one or more of legs 534, 536, 538 are installedin the formation using coiled tubing. In certain embodiments, coiledtubing is installed in the formation, the leg is installed inside thecoiled tubing, and the coiled tubing is pulled out of the formation toleave the leg installed in the formation. The leg may be placedconcentrically inside the coiled tubing. In some embodiments, coiledtubing with the leg inside the coiled tubing is installed in theformation and the coiled tubing is removed from the formation to leavethe leg installed in the formation. The coiled tubing may extend only toa junction of the hydrocarbon layer and the contacting section, or to apoint at which the leg begins to bend in the contacting section.

FIG. 92 depicts a top view representation of an embodiment of aplurality of triads of three-phase heaters in the formation. Each triad560 includes legs A, B, C (which may correspond to legs 534, 536, 538depicted in FIGS. 90 and 91) that are electrically coupled by linkages562. Each triad 560 is coupled to its own electrically isolatedthree-phase transformer so that the triads are substantiallyelectrically isolated from each other. Electrically isolating the triadsinhibits net current flow between triads.

The phases of each triad 560 may be arranged so that legs A, B, Ccorrespond between triads as shown in FIG. 92. Legs A, B, C are arrangedsuch that a phase leg (for example, leg A) in a given triad is about twotriad heights from a same phase leg (leg A) in an adjacent triad. Thetriad height is the distance from a vertex of the triad to a midpoint ofthe line intersecting the other two vertices of the triad. In certainembodiments, the phases of triads 560 are arranged to inhibit netcurrent flow between individual triads. There may be some leakage ofcurrent within an individual triad but little net current flows betweentwo triads due to the substantial electrical isolation of the triadsand, in certain embodiments, the arrangement of the triad phases.

In the early stages of heating, an exposed heating element (for example,heating element 542 depicted in FIGS. 90 and 91) may leak some currentto water or other fluids that are electrically conductive in theformation so that the formation itself is heated. After water or otherelectrically conductive fluids are removed from the wellbore (forexample, vaporized or produced), the heating elements becomeelectrically isolated from the formation. Later, when water is removedfrom the formation, the formation becomes even more electricallyresistant and heating of the formation occurs even more predominantlyvia thermally conductive and/or radiative heating. Typically, theformation (the hydrocarbon layer) has an initial electrical resistancethat averages at least 10 ohm·m. In some embodiments, the formation hasan initial electrical resistance of at least 100 ohm·m or of at least300 ohm·m.

Using the temperature limited heaters as the heating elements limits theeffect of water saturation on heater efficiency. With water in theformation and in heater wellbores, there is a tendency for electricalcurrent to flow between heater elements at the top of the hydrocarbonlayer where the voltage is highest and cause uneven heating in thehydrocarbon layer. This effect is inhibited with temperature limitedheaters because the temperature limited heaters reduce localizedoverheating in the heating elements and in the hydrocarbon layer.

In certain embodiments, production wells are placed at a location atwhich there is relatively little or zero voltage potential. Thislocation minimizes stray potentials at the production well. Placingproduction wells at such locations improves the safety of the system andreduces or inhibits undesired heating of the production wells caused byelectrical current flow in the production wells. FIG. 93 depicts a topview representation of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 92 withproduction wells 206. In certain embodiments, production wells 206 arelocated at or near center of triad 560. In certain embodiments,production wells 206 are placed at a location between triads at whichthere is relatively little or zero voltage potential (at a location atwhich voltage potentials from vertices of three triads average out torelatively little or zero voltage potential). For example, productionwell 206 may be at a location equidistant from leg A of one triad, leg Bof a second triad, and leg C of a third triad, as shown in FIG. 93.

Certain embodiments of heaters include conducting elements from an ACpower supply in a single wellbore. For example, FIGS. 90 and 91 depictheater embodiments with three-phase heaters that include singleconducting elements carrying one of the three phases in each wellbore.The single conducting element may carry, for example, a single-phase(one phase) of the three-phase heater. A problem with having a singleconducting element in the wellbore is current or voltage induction inconductors on the surface, components of the wellbore (for example, theheater casing), and/or in the formation caused by magnetic fieldsproduced by the single conducting element. In a wellbore with the supplyand return conductors both located in the wellbore, the magnetic fieldsproduced by the current running through the supply conductor arecancelled by magnetic fields produced by the current running through thereturn conductor. In addition, the single conducting element may inducecurrents in production wellbores and/or other nearby wellbores.

FIG. 94 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a heat treatment systemincluding heater 412 and production wells 206. In certain embodiments,heater 412 is a three-phase heater that includes legs 534, 536, 538coupled to transformer 414 delivering three-phase power and terminalconnector 556. Legs 534, 536, 538 may each include single conductingelements carrying one phase of the three-phase power. Legs 534, 536, 538may be coupled together to form a “triad” heater. In certainembodiments, legs 534, 536, 538 are relatively long heater sections. Forexample, legs 534, 536, 538 may be about 3000 m or longer in length.

In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 94, production wells 206 arelocated substantially horizontally in the formation in proximity to legs534, 536, 538 of heater 412 in order to collect heated formation fluidsor other formation fluids. In some embodiments, production wells 206 maybe other types of wells such as injection wells or monitoring wells. Insome embodiments, production wells 206 are located at an incline orvertically in the formation. As shown in FIG. 94, production wells 206may include two production wells that extend from each side of heater412 towards the center of the heater substantially lengthwise along theheated sections of legs 534, 536, 538. In some embodiments, oneproduction well 206 extends substantially lengthwise along the heatedsections of the legs.

FIG. 95 depicts a side-view representation of one leg of heater 412 inthe subsurface formation. Leg 534 is shown as representative of any legin of heater 412 in the formation. Leg 534 may include heating element542 in hydrocarbon layer 388 below overburden 400. In certainembodiments, heating element 542 is located substantially horizontal inhydrocarbon layer 388. Transition section 546 may couple heating element542 to lead-in cable 540. Lead-in cable 540 may be an overburden sectionor overburden element of heater 412. Lead-in cable 540 couples heatingelement 542 and transition section 546 to electrical components at thesurface (for example, transformer 414 and/or terminal connector 556depicted in FIG. 94).

As shown in FIG. 95, heater casing 564 extends from the surface to at ornear end of transition section 546. Overburden casing 398 substantiallysurrounds heater casing 564 in overburden 400. Surface conductor 566substantially surrounds overburden casing 398 at or near the surface ofthe formation.

In certain embodiments, heating element 542 is an exposed metal or baremetal heating element. For example, heating element 542 may be anexposed ferromagnetic metal heating element such as 410 stainless steel.Lead-in cable 540 includes low resistance electrical conductors such ascopper or copper-clad steel. Lead-in cable 540 may include electricalinsulation or otherwise be electrically insulated from overburden 400(for example, overburden casing 398 may include electrical insulation onan inside surface of the casing). Transition section 546 may include acombination of stainless steel and copper suitable for transitionbetween heating element 542 and lead-in cable 540.

In some embodiments, heater casing 564 includes non-ferromagneticstainless steel or another suitable material that has high hangingstrength and is non-ferromagnetic. Overburden casing 398 and/or surfaceconductor 566 may include carbon steel or other suitable materials.

FIG. 96 depicts a schematic representation of a surface cablingconfiguration with a ground loop used for heater 412 and production well206. In certain embodiments, ground loop 568 substantially surroundslegs 534, 536, 538 of heater 412, production well 206, and transformer414. Power cable 394 may couple transformer 414 to legs 534, 536, 538 ofheater 412. The center portion of power cable 394 coupled to thetransformer neutral may be connected to loop 570. Loop 570 extends thecenter portion of power cable 394 to have approximately the same lengthas the portions of power cable 394 coupled to side legs 534, 538. Havingeach portion of power cable 394 approximately the same length inhibitscreation of phase current differences between the legs.

In certain embodiments, transformer 414 is coupled to ground loop 568 toground the transformer and heater 412. In some embodiments, transformer414 is coupled to ground loop 568 through a high grounding resistance.Connection through the high grounding resistance may allow detection ofground faults while limiting fault currents. In some embodiments,production well 206 is coupled to ground loop 568 to ground theproduction well.

FIG. 97 depicts a side view of an overburden portion of leg 534. Lead-incable 540 is substantially surrounded by heater casing 564 andoverburden casing 398 (“casing 564/398”) in the overburden of theformation. Current flow in lead-in cable 540 (represented by +/− symbolsat ends the lead-in cable) induces a potential of opposite polarity oncasing 564/398 (represented by +/− symbols on line 572). This inducedvoltage on casing 564/398 is caused by mutual inductance of the casingwith all the heater elements in the triad (each of the three-phaseelements in the formation). The mutual inductance may be described bythe following equation:

M=2×10⁻⁰⁷ ln [S/r];  (EQN. 6)

where M is the mutual inductance, S is the center to center separationbetween heater elements, and r is the outer radius of the casing. Theinduced voltage (per unit length) in the casing (V) is proportional tothe heater lead-in current (I) and is given by the equation:

ΔV=ωMI.  (EQN. 7)

Because typically high current is provided through lead-in cable 540 inorder to provide power to long heater elements, the induced voltages oncasing 564/398 can be relatively high. The induced casing potential maydrive large casing currents through a circuit that includes the casingand the associated conducting earth path. Large currents flowing fromthe casing to and from the earth may lead to AC corrosion problemsand/or leakage of current into the formation. Large currents on thecasing, when grounded, may also necessitate large currents in the groundloop to compensate for the currents on the casing. Large currents on theground loop may be costly in power consumption and, in some cases, bedifficult or unsafe to operate. Induced casing potential and resultingcasing currents may also lead to high surface potentials around theheaters on the surface. High surface potentials may create unsafe areasfor personnel and/or equipment on the surface.

Simulations may be used to assess and/or determine the location andmagnitude of induced casing and ground currents in the formation. Forexample, simulation systems available from Safe Engineering Services &Technologies, Ltd. (Laval, Quebec, Canada) may be used to assess inducedcasing and ground currents for subsurface heating systems. Data such as,but not limited to, physical dimensions of the heaters, electrical andmagnetic properties of materials used, formation resistivity profile,and applied voltage/current including phase profile may be used in thesimulation to assess induced casing and ground currents.

FIG. 98 depicts a side view of overburden portions of legs 534, 536grounded to ground loop 568. Legs 534, 536 have opposite polarity suchthat the currents induced in the casings of the legs also have oppositepolarity. The opposite polarity of the casings causes circulatingcurrent flow between the legs through the overburden. This circulatingcurrent flow is represented by curve 574. Because legs 534, 536 aregrounded to ground loop 568, the magnitude of circulating current flow(curve 574) (current density on the casings) is relatively large. Forexample, normal current densities on the surface of the heater casingmay be 1 A/m² or greater. Such current densities may increase the riskof AC corrosion in the heater casing.

FIG. 99 depicts a side view of overburden portions of legs 534, 536 withthe legs ungrounded to a ground loop. Ungrounding legs 534, 536 reducesthe magnitude of the circulating current flow between the legs (currentdensity on the casings), as shown by curve 574. For example, the currentdensity on the heater casing may be lowered by a factor of about 2. Thisreduction in magnitude may, however, not be large enough to satisfyregulatory and/or safety issues with the induced current as the inducedcurrent remains near the surface of the formation. In addition, theremay be additional regulatory and/or safety issues associated withungrounding legs 534, 536 such as, but not limited to, increasingwellhead electrical fields above safe levels.

FIG. 100 depicts a side view of overburden portions of legs 534, 536with the electrically conductive portions of casings 564/398 loweredselected depth 576 below the surface. As shown by curve 574, loweringthe conductive portion of casings 564/398 selected depth 576 reduces themagnitude of the induced current (and normal current density on thecasings) and moves the induced current to the selected depth below thesurface. Moving the induced current to selected depth 576 below thesurface reduces surface potentials and surface ground currents from theinduced currents in the casings. For example, the normal current densityon the heater casing may be lowered by a factor of about 3 by loweringthe conductive portion of the casing.

In certain embodiments, the conductive portions of casings 564/398 arelowered in the formation by using electrically non-conductive materialsin the portions of the casings above the conductive portions of thecasings. For example, casings 564/398 may include non-conductiveportions between the surface and the selected depth and conductiveportions below the selected depth. In some embodiments, the electricallynon-conductive portions include materials such as, but not limited to,fiberglass or other electrically insulating materials.

The non-conductive portion of casings 564/398 may only be used to theselected depth because the use of the non-conductive material may not betechnically feasible or economically feasible for the entire depth ofthe casing. Materials to make non-conducting material are generally moreexpensive than materials to make the conductive portion (for example,stainless steel), thus it is desirable to minimize the size of thenon-conductive portion of the casing. The non-conductive material mayhave low temperature limits that inhibit use of the non-conductivematerial near the heated section of the heater. Thus, conductivematerial may need to be used in the lower part of the overburden portionof the heater (the part near the heated section). As the non-conductivematerial may not be high strength material, to support the weight of theconductive material (for example, stainless steel), the conductiveportion may be located as close to the surface as possible. Locating theconductive portion closer to the surface reduces the size of hangingdevices or other structures that may be required to support theconductive portion of the casing during installation.

In certain embodiments, the non-conductive portion of casings 564/398extends to a depth that is below the surface moisture zone in theformation. The surface moisture zone may be a portion of the overburdenthat contains materials or fluids (for example, water) that may conductcurrents at or near the surface. For example, a surface moisture zonemay be the portion of the formation that has a moisture content greaterthan the moisture content of the top soil. In some embodiments, asurface moisture zone has a resistivity of greater than 100 ohm m.Keeping the conductive portion of casings 564/398 below the surfacemoisture zone reduces the magnitude of induced currents at the surface.In some embodiments, the conductive portion of casing 564/398 is locatedbelow a layer that has a resistivity of greater than 100 ohm m.

In some embodiments, the non-conductive portion of casings 564/398extends to a depth that is at least the distance between legs 534, 536.In certain embodiments, legs 534, 536 are in adjacent wellbores. Thenon-conductive portion of casings 564/398 extends to a depth that is atleast twice the distance of the spacing between legs. For example, for a40′ (about 12 m) spacing between legs, the non-conductive portion ofcasings 564/398 may extend at least about 100′ (about 30 m) below thesurface. In some embodiments, the non-conductive portion of casings564/398 extends at least about 15 m, at least about 20 m, or at leastabout 30 m below the surface. The non-conductive portion of casings564/398 may extend to a depth of at most about 150 m, about 300 m, orabout 500 m from the surface. In some embodiments, the non-conductingportion extends to a depth that is greater than a distance between theheater wellbore and a closest additional heater wellbore in theformation. In some embodiments, legs 534, 536 are in adjacent wellboresin the formation. The non-conductive portion of casings 564/398 mayextend to a depth that is at least twice the distance between thewellbores.

The non-conductive portion of casings 564/398 may extend at most to aselected distance from the heated zone of the formation (the heatedportion of the heater). In some embodiments, the selected distance isabout 100 m, about 150 m, or about 200 m. In some embodiments, thenon-conductive portion of casings 564/398 may extend to a depth that isslightly above or near the beginning of the bend in a u-shaped heater.

The desired depth of non-conductive portion of casings 564/398 may beassessed based on electrical effects for the formation to be treatedand/or electrical properties of the heaters to be used. Simulations,such as those available from Safe Engineering Services & Technologies,Ltd. (Laval, Quebec, Canada), may be used to assess the desired depth ofthe non-conductive portion of the casing. The desired depth may also beaffected by factors such as, but not limited to, safety issues,regulatory issues, and mechanical issues.

In some embodiments, the overburden portions of legs 534, 536 are movedcloser together so that the non-conductive portion of casings 564/398can be moved to a shallower depth. For example, the overburden portionsof legs 534, 536 may be relatively close together while the heatedportions of the legs diverge below the overburden to greater separationdistances needed for desired heating the formation. In certainembodiments, as depicted in FIG. 100, legs 534, 536 are ungrounded withthe casings lowered the selected distance.

When the electrically conductive portions of casings 564/398 are loweredto selected depth 576, ground loop 568 may become the location of thehighest field gradient at the surface. In some embodiments, a groundwellbore may be located below the surface and coupled to ground loop 568(for example, with an insulated conductor (cable)). Coupling ground loop568 to the ground wellbore below the surface may substantially reducethe high field gradient at the surface. The ground wellbore may be at adepth specified, for example, by standard electrical grounding practicesknown in the art.

In some embodiments, a subsurface hydrocarbon containing formation maybe treated by the in situ heat treatment process to produce mobilizedand/or pyrolyzed products from the formation. In some embodiments, asubsurface heater may include two or more heat generating electricalconductors. The conductors may be, for example, flexible conductorsand/or insulated conductors (such as mineral insulated conductors). Theconductors may be positioned in a tubular. In some embodiments, theconductors are positioned between two tubulars. In certain embodiments,the conductors are positioned around an exterior surface of a firsttubular. The conductors and the first tubular may be positioned in asecond tubular. The first and second tubular may form a dual-walledwellbore liner. The conductors inside the first and second tubular allowthe wellbore liner to be operated as a liner heater.

In some embodiments, the heater includes a plurality of conductorspositioned between the first and second tubulars. In certainembodiments, the heater includes between 2 and 16, between 4 and 12, orbetween 6 and 9 conductors. In certain embodiments, the heater includesmultiples of 3 conductors (for example, 3, 6, or 9 conductors). In someembodiments, the conductors are wound around the inner first tubular ina roughly spiral pattern (for example, a helical pattern). Theconductors may be formed from single conductors (for example,single-phase conductors) or multiple conductors (for example,three-phase conductors). Installing the conductors in the spiral patternmay produce a more uniform temperature profile and/or relieve mechanicalstresses on the conductors. The more uniform temperature profile mayincrease heater life. Spiraled conductors, positioned between twotubulars, may not have the same tendency to expand and contract apart,which may potentially cause eddy currents. Spiraled conductorspositioned between two tubulars may be more easily coiled on a largereel for transport without the ends of the heaters becoming uneven inlength.

In certain embodiments, the tubulars are coiled tubing tubulars.Integrating the conductors in the first and second tubulars may allowfor installation using a coiled tubing spooler, straightener, and/orinjector system (for example, a coiled tubing rig). For example, coiledtubing tubulars may be wound onto the tubing rig during or afterconstruction of the heater and unwound from the tubing rig as the heateris installed into the subsurface formation. This type of installationmethod may not require additional time typically required to attach theheat generating conductor to a pipe wall during well installation,reducing the overall workover cost. The tubing rig may be readilytransported from the construction site to the heater installation siteusing methods known in the art or described herein. Use of the dualwalled coiled tubing heating system may allow for retrieval of thesystem during initial operations.

In some embodiments, at least a portion of the conductors are in contactwith the outer second tubular. FIGS. 101 and 102 depict cross-sectionalrepresentations of heaters 412 including three single-phase conductors380 positioned between first tubulars 578A and second tubulars 578B.FIG. 103 depicts a cross-sectional representation of heater 412including nine single-phase conductors 380 positioned between firsttubular 578A and second tubular 578B. Forming heater 412 such thatconductors 380 are in contact with the second tubular 578B results inthe conductors providing conductive heat transfer between the firsttubular 578A and the second tubular (as shown in FIGS. 101, 102, and103). In such embodiments, conductive heat transfer functions as theprimary method of heat transfer to second tubular 578B.

In some embodiments, conductors 380 are inhibited from contacting theouter second tubular. FIG. 104 depicts a cross-sectional representationof heater 412 including nine single-phase conductors 380 positionedbetween first tubular 578A and second tubular 578B with spacers 580.Spacers 580 may be positioned between first tubular 578A and secondtubular 578B. The spacers may function to maintain separation betweenthe tubulars and inhibit conductors 380 from contacting second tubular578B. In such embodiments, radiative heat transfer functions as theprimary method of heat transfer to second tubular 578B.

In some embodiments, spacers 580 are formed from an insulating material.For example, spacers may be formed from a fibrous ceramic material suchas Nextel™ 312 (3M Corporation, St. Paul, Minn., U.S.A.), mica tape,glass fiber, or combinations thereof. Ceramic material may be made ofalumina, alumina-silicate, alumina-borosilicate, silicon nitride, boronnitride, other suitable high-temperature materials, or mixtures thereof.

In some embodiments, heat transfer material (for example, heat transferfluid) is located in the annulus between first tubular 578A and secondtubular 578B. Heat transfer material may increase the efficiency of theheaters. Heat transfer material includes, but is not limited to, moltenmetal, molten salt, other heat conducting liquids, or heat conductinggases.

Conductors 380 may include single cores or multiple cores. In someembodiments, the conductors used in the heater include single coresinstalled between the first and second tubulars (for example, cores 374in conductors 380 depicted in FIGS. 101, 102, 103, and 104). The coresmay be electrically connected as single phase cores or coupled togetherin groups of 3 in 3-phase configurations (for example, 3-phase wyeconfigurations). The electrical connections may be completed by bondingtwo cores and up to nine or more cores together.

The single cores may be connected together (for example, bonded) at theun-powered end, creating a single phase heating system (two coresconnected) and up to, for example, three, 3-phase heating systems (ninecores connected to three power sources). These connections may belocated at the subterranean end of the heating system (for example, nearthe toe of a horizontal heater wellbore). At the powered connection ofthe heater, the single-phase cores may be connected to line-to-linevoltage (for example, up to 4160 V) for heat generation. 3-phase heatersmay be connected electrically on the surface using a 3-phase powertransformer. Line-to-neutral voltage for these heaters may be up toabout 2402 V (V/√{square root over (3)}) since they are electricallyconnected at the un-powered subterranean end.

In some embodiments, conductors 380 used in the heater include multiplecores 374 installed between the first and second tubulars. For example,conductors 380 may include three multiple cores 374 configured to beprovided power by a 3-phase transformer. FIG. 105 depicts across-sectional representation of heater 412 including nine multipleconductors 380 (in FIG. 105, each conductor includes three cores 374)positioned between first tubular 578A and second tubular 578B. FIG. 106depicts a cross-sectional representation of heater 412 including ninemultiple conductors 380 (in FIG. 106, each conductor includes threecores 374) positioned between first tubular 578A and second tubular 578Bwith spacers 580. Heater 412, depicted in FIG. 106, includes spacers580. The multiple core conductors depicted in FIGS. 105 and 106 may becoupled together at the un-powered end (for example, bonded at theun-powered end). These connections may be located at the subterraneanend of the heating system (for example, near the toe of a horizontalheater wellbore). Connecting the cores at the un-powered end may createelectrically independent, individual heating systems that are powered,up to nine or more at a time, to reduce the heat-up time constant forthe desired formation temperature or three at a time to maintain thedesired formation temperature. The line to neutral voltage for theseheaters may be up to about 2402 V (4160/V/√{square root over (3)}) sincethey are connected at the un-powered subterranean end.

The liner heaters, depicted in FIGS. 103, 104, 105, and 106, may includebuilt-in redundancy in either the single core or multiple core designs.By connecting the cores to a common node at the end of the heatingsystem, the single core conductors may be powered to by-pass anon-working conductor, creating a 3-phase or single phase heatingsystem.

In some embodiments, the first and/or second tubulars include two ormore openings. The openings may allow fluids to be moved upwards and/ordownwards through the tubulars. For example, formation fluids may beproduced through one of the openings inside the tubulars. Having theopenings inside the tubulars may promote heat transfer and/orhydrocarbon accumulation for production assistance (out-flow assurance)or formation heating (in-flow assurance). In some embodiments, the useof spacers enhances flow assurance inside the openings by reducing heatlosses to the formation and increasing heat transfer to fluids flowingthrough the openings.

In some embodiments, the liner heater is installed in a wellbore. Theheater may allow the heat generated to be primarily transferred byconduction, directly into the near wellbore interface. The heatgeneration system may be in intimate contact with the near wellboreinterface such that the operating temperatures of the heating system maybe reduced. Reducing operating temperatures of the heater may extend theexpected lifetime of the heater. Lower operating temperatures resultingfrom integrating the electro-thermal heating system within the dual wallcoiled tubular liner may increase the reliability of all components suchas: a) outer sheath material; b) ceramic insulation; c) conductor(s)material; d) splices; and e) components. Reducing operating temperaturesof the heater may inhibit hydrocarbon coking.

Because the liner heater is located in the liner portion of thewellbore, the use of a heating system in the interior of the wellboremay be eliminated. Eliminating the need for a heating system in theinterior of the wellbore may allow for unobstructed heated oilproduction through the wellbore. Eliminating the need for a heatingsystem in the interior of the wellbore may allow for the ability tointroduce heated diluents or process-inducing additives to the formationthrough the interior of the wellbore.

FIG. 107 depicts representation of an embodiment of liner heater 412 insubstantially horizontal wellbore 490 used for producing hydrocarbonsfrom hydrocarbon layer 388. In certain embodiments, hydrocarbon layer388 is a tar sands or other heavy hydrocarbon containing formation.Wellbore 490 has one or more openings to allow fluids (for example,mobilized and/or pyrolyzed hydrocarbons) to flow into the wellbore fromhydrocarbon layer 388 (as shown by arrows on perimeter of the wellbore).Fluids in wellbore 490 are produced to the surface of the formationthrough the center annulus of heater 412 (as shown by the arrows in thecenter of the heater). Thus, the center annulus of heater 412 is used asa production conduit.

In certain embodiments, heater 412 only allows fluids to enter thecenter of the heater at the distal end of the heater (the end furthestfrom the surface or the “toe” of the heater). Thus, fluids that enterwellbore 490 must flow to the toe of heater 412 before entering theproduction conduit in the center of the heater. Fluids inside of heater412 may flow back to the proximal horizontal end of the heater (thehorizontal end closest to the surface of the “heel” of the heater). Atthe heel of heater 412, the fluids may be gas lifted or otherwiseproduced to the surface using known techniques. Heater 412 may includeapparatus and mechanisms 1344 for gas lifting or pumping produced oil tothe surface. Apparatus and mechanisms 1344 may includes gas lift valvesused in a gas lift process. Examples of gas lift control systems andvalves are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,715,550 to Vinegar et al. and7,259,688 to Hirsch et al., and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.2002-0036085 to Bass et al., each of which is incorporated by referenceas if fully set forth herein. Forcing fluids to flow to the toe ofheater 412 in wellbore 490 on the outside of the heater and back to theheel of the heater on the inside of the heater in the horizontal portionof the wellbore creates a substantially uniform temperature profilealong the length of the heater. For example, the temperature profile ismore uniform than if fluids are allowed into the heater at any point orseveral points along the length of the heater.

In some embodiments, heater 412 includes two or more portions thatfunction to heat at different power levels and, thus, heat at differenttemperatures. For example, higher power levels and higher temperaturesmay be generated in portions adjacent the hydrocarbon containing layer.Lower power levels (for example, <5% of the higher power level) andlower temperatures may be generated in portions adjacent the overburden.In some embodiments, lower power level conductors are designed and madeutilizing larger diameter and/or different alloys with lower volumeresistivities and low-power-producing conductors as compared with thehigh power level conductors. In some embodiments, the power reduction inthe overburden is accomplished by using a conductor with aCurie-temperature power-limiting inherent characteristic (for example,low temperature and/or temperature limiting characteristics).

In certain embodiments, as shown in FIG. 107, conductor 380 of heater412 includes lead-in section 1340 near the heel of the heater. Lead-insection 1340 couples conductor 380 to lead-in cable 540 at connector1004. In certain embodiments, lead-in section 1340 is a section ofconductor 380 that provides less heat (is cooler) than the remainder ofthe heater. In some embodiments, lead-in section 1340 has a length thatallows for conductor 380 to reach temperatures suitable for conventionalconnection techniques to be used at connector 1004. For example,connector 1004 may be a conventional electrical splice available fromTyco International Inc. (Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.). In addition, aconventional lead-in cable 540 may be used to couple to conductor 380.An example of a conventional lead-in cable 540 is a pump cable such asthat used for a submersible pump. Cores of conductor 380 may be coupledat the toe of heater 412 using a standard connector such as thoseavailable from Tyco International Inc.

In certain embodiments, lead-in section 1340 includes a copper core orother highly electrically conductive core that produces little or noheat. The copper core may be coupled to the remainder of the core thatgenerates heat in the wellbore (for example, the remainder of the coremay be alloy 180 or another suitable electrical conductor for heating ina production wellbore). In certain embodiments, the copper core isspliced to the remainder of the core. FIG. 108 depicts a cross-sectionalrepresentation of conductor 380 with core 374B of lead-in section 1340spliced to core 374A of the remainder of the conductor. Splice 1342couples core 374A to core 374B. Splice 1342 may be any type of spliceknown in the art for joining electrical conductors. In certainembodiments, core 374A, core 374B, and splice 1342 have substantiallysimilar diameters.

In certain embodiments, portions of the wellbore that extend through theoverburden include casings. The casings may include materials thatinhibit inductive effects in the casings Inhibiting inductive effects inthe casings may inhibit induced currents in the casing and/or reduceheat losses to the overburden. In some embodiments, the overburdencasings may include non-metallic materials such as fiberglass,polyvinylchloride (PVC), chlorinated PVC (CPVC), high-densitypolyethylene (HDPE), high temperature polymers (such as nitrogen basedpolymers), or other high temperature plastics. HDPEs with workingtemperatures in a usable range include HDPEs available from Dow ChemicalCo., Inc. (Midland, Mich., U.S.A.). The overburden casings may be madeof materials that are spoolable so that the overburden casings can bespooled into the wellbore. In some embodiments, overburden casings mayinclude non-magnetic metals such as aluminum or non-magnetic alloys suchas manganese steels having at least 10% manganese, iron aluminum alloyswith at least 18% aluminum, or austentitic stainless steels such as 304stainless steel or 316 stainless steel. In some embodiments, overburdencasings may include carbon steel or other ferromagnetic material coupledon the inside diameter to a highly conductive non-ferromagnetic metal(for example, copper or aluminum) to inhibit inductive effects or skineffects. In some embodiments, overburden casings are made of inexpensivematerials that may be left in the formation (sacrificial casings).

In certain embodiments, wellheads for the wellbores may be made of oneor more non-ferromagnetic materials. FIG. 109 depicts an embodiment ofwellhead 392. The components in the wellheads may include fiberglass,PVC, CPVC, HDPE, high temperature polymers (such as nitrogen basedpolymers), and/or non-magnetic alloys or metals. Some materials (such aspolymers) may be extruded into a mold or reaction injection molded (RIM)into the shape of the wellhead. Forming the wellhead from a mold may bea less expensive method of making the wellhead and save in capital costsfor providing wellheads to a treatment site. Using non-ferromagneticmaterials in the wellhead may inhibit undesired heating of components inthe wellhead. Ferromagnetic materials used in the wellhead may beelectrically and/or thermally insulated from other components of thewellhead. In some embodiments, an inert gas (for example, nitrogen orargon) is purged inside the wellhead and/or inside of casings to inhibitreflux of heated gases into the wellhead and/or the casings.

In some embodiments, ferromagnetic materials in the wellhead areelectrically coupled to a non-ferromagnetic material (for example,copper) to inhibit skin effect heat generation in the ferromagneticmaterials in the wellhead. The non-ferromagnetic material is inelectrical contact with the ferromagnetic material so that current flowsthrough the non-ferromagnetic material. In certain embodiments, as shownin FIG. 109, non-ferromagnetic material 582 is coupled (and electricallycoupled) to the inside walls of conduit 382 and wellhead walls 584. Insome embodiments, copper may be plasma sprayed, coated, clad, or linedon the inside and/or outside walls of the wellhead. In some embodiments,a non-ferromagnetic material such as copper is welded, brazed, clad, orotherwise electrically coupled to the inside and/or outside walls of thewellhead. For example, copper may be swaged out to line the inside wallsin the wellhead. Copper may be liquid nitrogen cooled and then allowedto expand to contact and swage against the inside walls of the wellhead.In some embodiments, the copper is hydraulically expanded or explosivelybonded to contact against the inside walls of the wellhead.

In some embodiments, two or more substantially horizontal wellbores arebranched off of a first substantially vertical wellbore drilleddownwards from a first location on a surface of the formation. Thesubstantially horizontal wellbores may be substantially parallel througha hydrocarbon layer. The substantially horizontal wellbores mayreconnect at a second substantially vertical wellbore drilled downwardsat a second location on the surface of the formation. Having multiplewellbores branching off of a single substantially vertical wellboredrilled downwards from the surface reduces the number of openings madeat the surface of the formation.

Typical temperature measurement methods may be difficult and/orexpensive to implement for use in assessing a temperature profile of aheater located in a subsurface formation for heating in an in situ heattreatment process. The desire is for a temperature profile that includesmultiple temperatures along the length or a portion of the heater in thesubsurface formation. Thermocouples are one possible solution; however,thermocouples provide only one temperature at one location and one wireis generally needed for each thermocouple. Thus, to obtain a temperatureprofile along a length of the heater, multiple wires are needed. Therisk of failure of one or more of the thermocouples (or their associatedwires) is increased with the use of multiple wires in the subsurfacewellbore.

Another possible solution is the use of a fiber optic cable temperaturesensor system. The fiber optic cable system provides a temperatureprofile along a length of the heater. Commercially available fiber opticcable systems, however, typically only have operating temperature rangesup to about 300° C. Thus, these systems are not suitable for measurementof higher temperatures encountered while heating the subsurfaceformation during the in situ heat treatment process. Some experimentalfiber optic cable systems are suitable for use at these highertemperatures but these systems may be too expensive for implementationin a commercial process (for example, a large field of heaters). Thus,there is a need for a simple, inexpensive system that allows temperatureassessment at one or more locations along a length of the subsurfaceheater used in the in situ heat treatment process.

Current techniques allow for the measurement of dielectric properties ofinsulation along a length of the insulation (measurement of dielectricproperties distributed along the length of the insulation). Thesetechniques provide a profile of the dielectric properties with a spatialresolution (space between measurements) based on the type of insulationand the abilities of the measurement system. These techniques arecurrently used to assess dielectric properties and detect insulationflaws and/or insulation damage. Examples of current techniques are axialtomography and line resonance analysis. A version of axial tomography(Mashikian Axial Tomography) is provided by Instrument ManufacturingCompany (IMCORP) (Storrs, Conn., U.S.A.). Mashikian Axial Tomography isdisclosed in U.S. Pat. Application Pub. No. 2008-0048668 to Mashikian,which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. Aversion of line resonance analysis (LIRA) is provided by Wirescan AS(Halden, Norway). Wirescan AS LIRA is disclosed in International Pat.Pub. No. WO 2007/040406 to Fantoni, which is incorporated by referenceas if fully set forth herein.

The assessment of dielectric properties (using either the currenttechniques or modified versions of these techniques) may be used incombination with information about the temperature dependence ofdielectric properties to assess a temperature profile of one or moreenergized heaters (heaters that are powered and providing heat). Thetemperature dependence data of the dielectric properties may be foundfrom simulation and/or experimentation. Examples of dielectricproperties of the insulation that may be assessed over time include, butare not limited to, dielectric constant and loss tangent. FIG. 110depicts an example of a plot of dielectric constant versus temperaturefor magnesium oxide insulation in one embodiment of an insulatedconductor heater. FIG. 111 depicts an example of a plot of loss tangent(tan δ) versus temperature for magnesium oxide insulation in oneembodiment of an insulated conductor heater.

It should be noted that the temperature dependent behavior of adielectric property may vary based on certain factors. Factors that mayaffect the temperature dependent behavior of the dielectric propertyinclude, but are not limited to, the type of insulation, the dimensionsof the insulation, the time the insulation is exposed to environment(for example, heat from the heater), the composition (chemistry) of theinsulation, and the compaction of the insulation. Thus, it is typicallynecessary to measure (either by simulation and/or experimentation) thetemperature dependent behavior of the dielectric property for theembodiment of insulation that is to be used in a selected heater.

In certain embodiments, one or more dielectric properties of theinsulation in a heater having electrical insulation are assessed(measured) and compared to temperature dependence data of the dielectricproperties to assess (determine) a temperature profile along a length ofthe heater (for example, the entire length of the heater or a portion ofthe heater). For example, the temperature of an insulated conductorheater (such as a mineral insulated (MI) cable heater) may be assessedbased on dielectric properties of the insulation used in the heater.Examples of insulated conductor heaters are depicted in FIGS. 29A, 29B,and 36. Since the temperature dependence of the dielectric propertymeasured is known or estimated from simulation and/or experimentation,the measured dielectric property at a location along the heater may beused to assess the temperature of the heater at that location. Usingtechniques that measure the dielectric properties at multiple locationsalong a length of the heater (as is possible with current techniques), atemperature profile along that heater length may be provided.

In some embodiments, as shown by the plots in FIGS. 110 and 111, thedielectric properties are more sensitive to temperature at highertemperatures (for example, above about 900° F., as shown in FIGS. 110and 111). Thus, in some embodiments, the temperature of a portion of theinsulated conductor heater is assessed by measurement of the dielectricproperties at temperatures above about 400° C. (about 760° F.). Forexample, the temperature of the portion may be assessed by measurementof the dielectric properties at temperatures ranging from about 400° C.,about 450° C., or about 500° C. to about 800° C., about 850° C., orabout 900° C. These ranges of temperatures are above temperatures thatcan be measured using commercially available fiber optic cable systems.A fiber optic cable system suitable for use in the higher temperatureranges may, however, provide measurements with higher spatial resolutionthan temperature assessment by measurement of the dielectric properties.Thus, in some embodiments, the fiber optic cable system operable in thehigher temperature ranges may be used to calibrate temperatureassessment by measurement of dielectric properties.

At temperatures below these temperature ranges (for example, below about400° C.), temperature assessment by measurement of the dielectricproperties may be less accurate. Temperature assessment by measurementof the dielectric properties may, however, provide a reasonable estimateor “average” temperature of portions of the heater. The averagetemperature assessment may be used to assess whether the heater isoperating in a safe range. Typically, a heater operating at temperaturesbelow about 400° C., below about 450° C., or below about 500° C. isoperating in the safe range.

Temperature assessment by measurement of dielectric properties mayprovide a temperature profile along a length or portion of the insulatedconductor heater (temperature measurements distributed along the lengthor portion of the heater). Measuring the temperature profile is moreuseful for monitoring and controlling the heater as compared to takingtemperature measurements at only selected locations (such as temperaturemeasurement with thermocouples). Multiple thermocouples may be used toprovide a temperature profile. Multiple wires (one for eachthermocouple), however, would be needed. Temperature assessment bymeasurement of dielectric properties uses only one wire for measurementof the temperature profile, which is simpler and less expensive thanusing multiple thermocouples. In some embodiments, one or morethermocouples placed at selected locations are used to calibratetemperature assessment by measurement of dielectric properties.

In certain embodiments, the dielectric properties of the insulation inan insulated conductor heater are assessed (measured) over a period oftime to assess the temperature and operating characteristics of theheater over the period of time. For example, the dielectric propertiesmay be assessed continuously (or substantially continuously) to providereal-time monitoring of the dielectric properties and the temperature.Monitoring of the dielectric properties and the temperature may be usedto assess the condition of the heater during operation of the heater.For example, comparison of the assessed properties at specific locationsversus the average properties over the length of the heater may provideinformation on the location of hot spots or defects in the heater.

In some embodiments, the dielectric properties of the insulation changeover time. For example, the dielectric properties may change over timebecause of changes in the oxygen concentration in the insulation overtime and/or changes in the water content in the insulation over time.Oxygen in the insulation may be consumed by chromium or other metalsused in the insulated conductor heater. Thus, the oxygen concentrationdecreases with time in the insulation and affects the dielectricproperties of the insulation.

The changes in dielectric properties over time may be measured andcompensated for through experimental and/or simulated data. For example,the insulated conductor heater to be used for temperature assessment maybe heated in an oven or other apparatus and the changes in dielectricproperties can be measured over time at various temperatures and/or atconstant temperatures. In addition, thermocouples may be used tocalibrate the assessment of dielectric properties changes over time bycomparison of thermocouple data to temperature assessed by thedielectric properties.

In certain embodiments, temperature assessment by measurement ofdielectric properties is performed using a computational system such asa workstation or computer. The computational system may receivemeasurements (assessments) of the dielectric properties along the heaterand correlate these measured dielectric properties to assesstemperatures at one or more locations on the heater. For example, thecomputational system may store data about the relationship of thedielectric properties to temperature (such as the data depicted in FIGS.110 and 111) and/or time, and use this stored data to calculate thetemperatures on the heater based on the measured dielectric properties.

In certain embodiments, temperature assessment by dielectric propertiesmeasurement is performed on an energized heater providing heat to thesubsurface formation (for example, an insulated conductor heaterprovided with electric power to resistively heat and provide heat to thesubsurface formation). Assessing temperature on the energized heaterallows for detection of defects in the insulation on the device actuallyproviding heat to the formation. Assessing temperature on the energizedheater, however, may be more difficult due to attenuation of signalalong the heater because the heater is resistively heating. Thisattenuation may inhibit seeing further along the length of the heater(deeper into the formation along the heater). In some embodiments,temperatures in the upper sections of heaters (sections of the heatercloser to the overburden, for example, the upper half or upper third ofthe heater) may be more important for assessment because these sectionshave higher voltages applied to the heater, are at higher temperatures,and are at higher risk for failure or generation of hot spots. Thesignal attenuation in the temperature assessment by dielectricproperties measurement may not be as significant a factor in these uppersections because of the proximity of these sections to the surface.

In some embodiments, power to the insulated conductor heater is turnedoff before performing the temperature assessment. Power is then returnedto the insulated conductor heater after the temperature assessment.Thus, the insulated conductor heater is subjected to a heating on/offcycle to assess temperature. This on/off cycle may, however, reduce thelifetime of the heater due to the thermal cycling. In addition, theheater may cool off during the non-energized time period and provideless accurate temperature information (less accurate information on theactual working temperature of the heater).

In certain embodiments, temperature assessment by dielectric propertiesmeasurement is performed on an insulated conductor that is not to beused for heating or not configured for heating. Such an insulatedconductor may be a separate insulated conductor temperature probe. Insome embodiments, the insulated conductor temperature probe is anon-energized heater (for example, an insulated conductor heater notpowered). The insulated conductor temperature probe may be a stand-alonedevice that can be located in an opening in the subsurface formation tomeasure temperature in the opening. In some embodiments, the insulatedconductor temperature probe is a looped probe that goes out and backinto the opening with signals transmitted in one direction on the probe.In some embodiments, the insulated conductor temperature probe is asingle hanging probe with the signal transmitted along the core andreturned along the sheath of the insulated conductor.

In certain embodiments, the insulated conductor temperature probeincludes a copper core (to provide better conductance to the end of thecable and better spatial resolution) surrounded by magnesium oxideinsulation and an outer metal sheath. The outer metal sheath may be madeof any material suitable for use in the subsurface opening. For example,the outer metal sheath may be a stainless steel sheath or an innersheath of copper wrapped with an outer sheath of stainless steel.Typically, the insulated conductor temperature probe operates up totemperatures and pressures that can be withstood by the outer metalsheath.

In some embodiments, the insulated conductor temperature probe islocated adjacent to or near an energized heater in the opening tomeasure temperatures along the energized heater. There may be atemperature difference between the insulated conductor temperature probeand the energized heater (for example, between about 50° C. and 100° C.temperature differences). This temperature difference may be assessedthrough experimentation and/or simulation and accounted for in thetemperature measurements. The temperature difference may also becalibrated using one or more thermocouples attached to the energizedheater.

In some embodiments, one or more thermocouples are attached to theinsulated conductor used for temperature assessment (either an energizedinsulated conductor heater or a non-energized insulated conductortemperature probe). The attached thermocouples may be used forcalibration and/or backup measurement of the temperature assessed on theinsulated conductor by dielectric property measurement. In someembodiments, calibration and/or backup temperature indication isachieved by assessment of the resistance variation of the core of theinsulated conductor at a given applied voltage. Temperature may beassessed by knowing the resistance versus temperature profile of thecore material at the given voltage. In some embodiments, the insulatedconductor is a loop and current induced in the loop from energizedheaters in the subsurface opening provides input for the resistancemeasurement.

In certain embodiments, insulation material properties in the insulatedconductor are varied to provide different sensitivities to temperaturefor the insulated conductor. Examples of insulation material propertiesthat may be varied include, but are not limited to, the chemical andphase composition, the microstructure, and/or the mixture of insulatingmaterials. Varying the insulation material properties in the insulatedconductor allows the insulated conductor to be tuned to a selectedtemperature range. The selected temperature range may be selected, forexample, for a desired application of the insulated conductor.

In some embodiments, insulation material properties are varied along thelength of the insulated conductor (the insulation material propertiesare different at selected points within the insulated conductor).Varying properties of the insulation material at known locations alongthe length of the insulated conductor allows the measurement of thedielectric properties to give location information and/or provide forself-calibration of the insulated conductor in addition to providingtemperature assessment. In some embodiments, the insulated conductorincludes a portion with insulation material properties that allow theportion to act as a reflector. The reflector portion may be used tolimit temperature assessment to specific portions of the insulatedconductor (for example, a specific length of insulated conductor). Oneor more reflector portions may be used to provide spatial markers alongthe length of the insulated conductor.

Varying the insulation material properties adjusts the activation energyof the insulation material. Typically, increasing the activation energyof the insulation material reduces attenuation in the insulationmaterial and provides better spatial resolution. Lowering the activationenergy typically provides better temperature sensitivity. The activationenergy may be raised or lowered, for example, by adding differentcomponents to the insulation material. For example, adding certaincomponents to magnesium oxide insulation will lower the activationenergy. Examples of components that may be added to magnesium oxide tolower the activation energy include, but are not limited to, titaniumoxide, nickel oxide, and iron oxide.

In some embodiments, temperature is assessed using two or more insulatedconductors. The insulated conductors may have different activationenergies to provide a variation in spatial resolution and temperaturesensitivity to more accurately assess temperature in the subsurfaceopening. The higher activation energy insulated conductor may be used toprovide better spatial resolution and identify the location of hot spotsor other temperature variations more accurately while the loweractivation energy insulated conductor may be used to provide moreaccurate temperature measurement at those locations.

In some embodiments, temperature is assessed by assessing leakagecurrent from the insulated conductor. Temperature dependence data of theleakage current may be used to assess the temperature based on assessed(measured) leakage current from the insulated conductor. The measuredleakage current may be used in combination with information about thetemperature dependence of the leakage current to assess a temperatureprofile of one or more heaters or insulated conductors located in asubsurface opening. The temperature dependence data of the leakagecurrent may be found from simulation and/or experimentation. In certainembodiments, the temperature dependence data of the leakage current isalso dependent on the voltage applied to the heater.

FIG. 112 depicts an example of a plot of leakage current (mA) versustemperature (° F.) for magnesium oxide insulation in one embodiment ofan insulated conductor heater at different applied voltages. Plot 586 isfor an applied voltage of 4300 V. Plot 588 is for an applied voltage of3600 V. Plot 590 is for an applied voltage of 2800 V. Plot 592 is for anapplied voltage of 2100 V.

As shown by the plots in FIG. 112, the leakage current is more sensitiveto temperature at higher temperatures (for example, above about 950° F.,as shown in FIG. 112). Thus, in some embodiments, the temperature of aportion of the insulated conductor heater is assessed by measurement ofthe leakage current at temperatures above about 500° C. (about 932° F.).

A temperature profile along a length of the heater may be obtained bymeasuring the leakage current along the length of the heater usingtechniques known in the art. In some embodiments, assessment oftemperature by measuring the leakage current is used in combination withtemperature assessment by dielectric properties measurement. Forexample, temperature assessment by measurement of the leakage currentmay be used to calibrate and/or backup temperature assessments made bymeasurement of dielectric properties.

In certain embodiments, an insulated conductor using salt as theelectrical insulator is used for temperature measurement. The saltbecomes an electrical conductor above the melting temperature (T_(m)) ofthe salt and allows current to flow through the electrical insulator.FIG. 113 depicts an embodiment of insulated conductor 410 with salt usedas electrical insulator 364. Core 374 is copper or another suitableelectrical conductor. Jacket 370 is stainless steel or another suitablecorrosion-resistant electrical conductor. In one embodiment, core 374 is0.125″ (about 0.3175 cm) diameter copper surrounded by electricalinsulator 364. Electrical insulator 364 is 0.1″ (about 0.25 cm) thicksalt insulation surrounded by jacket 370. Jacket 370 is 0.1″ (about 0.25cm) thick stainless steel. The outer diameter of insulated conductor 410is then 0.525″ (about 1.33 cm).

In certain embodiments, electrical insulator 364 includes a salt with amelting temperature (T_(m)) at a desired temperature. The desiredtemperature may be a temperature in the range of operation of asubsurface heater or a maximum temperature desired in the opening. Forexample, the desired temperature may be above about 300° C. or in arange between 300° C., 400° C., about 450° C., or about 500° C. andabout 800° C., about 850° C., or about 900° C. Examples of saltsinclude, but are not limited to, Na₂CO₃ (T_(m)=851° C.), Li₂CO₃(T_(m)=732° C.), LiCl (T_(m)=605° C.), KOH (T_(m)=420° C.), KNO₃(T_(m)=334° C.), NaNO₃ (T_(m)=308° C.), and mixtures thereof. In someembodiments, magnesium oxide (such as porous magnesium oxide) is addedto the salt to provide mechanical centering support. The magnesium oxidemaintains the integrity and structure of insulated conductor 410 whenthe salt melts. Porous magnesium oxide allows for electricalconnectivity between core 374 and jacket 370 by having the saltdistributed in the pores of the magnesium oxide.

In certain embodiments, a mixture of two or more salts is used inelectrical insulator 364 of insulated conductor 410. Varying thecomposition of the salts in the mixture allows for adjusting and tuningthe melting temperature of the mixture to a desired temperature. In someembodiments, the composition of eutectic mixtures of salts is adjustedand tuned to the desired temperature. Eutectic mixtures may allow forfiner adjustment and tuning to the desired temperature. Examples ofeutectic mixtures that may be used include, but are not limited to,K₂CO₃:Na₂CO₃:Li₂CO₃ and KNO₃:NaNO₃.

Insulated conductor 410 may be coupled to or located near one or moreheaters in a subsurface wellbore to assess the temperature at one ormore locations along the length of the insulated conductor at or nearthe heaters. In some embodiments, insulated conductor 410 is similar inlength to the heaters in the subsurface wellbore. In some embodiments,insulated conductor 410 has a shorter length than the heaters. In someembodiments, more than one insulated conductor 410 may be used in thewellbore to assess the temperature at different locations in thewellbore and/or at different temperatures.

FIG. 114 depicts an embodiment of insulated conductor 410 locatedproximate heaters 412 in wellbore 490. In some embodiments, insulatedconductor 410 is coupled to one or more of heaters 412. For example,insulated conductor 410 may be strapped to the assembly of heaters 412.Heaters 412 may be insulated conductor heaters, conductor-in-conduitheaters, other types of heaters described herein, or combinationsthereof.

To assess a location that is hotter than other portions of insulatedconductor 410, voltage is applied to core 374 and jacket 370 of theinsulated conductor, as shown in FIG. 115. Below the melting temperature(T_(m)) of the salt, there is little or no current drawn by core 374 andjacket 370 because the salt is in a solid phase. In the solid phase, thesalt acts as an electrical insulator with resistivities above about 10⁶Ω-cm.

In some embodiments, hot spot 594 may develop at some location along theinsulated conductor 410. Hot spot 594 is hotter than other portionsalong the length of insulated conductor 410. Hot spot 594 may be causedby a hot spot developing on or near one or more heaters located in thewellbore (for example, heaters 412 depicted in FIG. 114). At hot spot594, the salt melts and becomes a liquid or molten salt. In the liquidphase, the salt becomes an electrical conductor with resistivities below1 Ω-cm. Thus, current begins to flow between the surface and hot spot594, as shown by the arrows in FIG. 115. Once current begins to flowthrough core 374 and jacket 370 of insulated conductor 410, if theresistance of the core and the jacket are known, the distance from thesurface to hot spot 594 (x in FIG. 115) may be assessed by the measuredcurrent at the surface.

In certain embodiments, multiple hotspots may be located using insulatedconductor 410. Time domain reflectometry may be used to locate multiplehotspots along insulated conductor 410 because the insulated conductorhas a coaxial geometry. FIG. 116 shows insulated conductor 410 withmultiple hot spots 594A, 594B. Incident pulse 596 is provided toinsulated conductor 410. Reflected pulses 598A, 594B are generated atcorresponding hot spots 594A, 594B.

The conductive molten salt at hot spots 594A, 594B provides a strongimpedance mismatch for the reflections. The reflection coefficient foreach hotspot can be assessed using EQN. 8:

ρ=(Z _(HS) −Z ₀)/(Z _(HS) +Z ₀);  (EQN. 8)

where Z_(HS) is the impedance of the hotspot, and Z₀ is the impedance ofthe insulated conductor (cable).

The location of the hotspots (X_(HSa), X_(HSb)) can be assessed byassessing (measuring) the transit time, ρ, between the incident andreflected pulses and using EQN. 9:

X _(HS) =v*τ/2;  (EQN. 9)

where v=v_(c)/√(ε) is the propagation velocity, v_(c), is the speed oflight, and ε is the dielectric constant of the salt insulation, whichdepends upon the salt used and compaction of the insulated conductor. Insome embodiments, a hairpin insulated conductor configuration is used.The hairpin configuration allows for testing from both ends of theinsulated conductor and increases the accuracy of hotspot location.

In some embodiments, assessment of the locations of hotspots byassessing the current or pulses applied to salt based insulatedconductor 410 is used in combination with temperature assessment usingthermocouples and/or fiber optic cable temperature sensor. Thethermocouples and/or fiber optic cable temperature sensor may be usedfor calibration and/or backup measurement of the temperature assessmentusing the salt based insulated conductor.

In certain embodiments, a temperature limited heater is utilized forheavy oil applications (for example, treatment of relatively permeableformations or tar sands formations). A temperature limited heater mayprovide a relatively low Curie temperature and/or phase transformationtemperature range so that a maximum average operating temperature of theheater is less than 350° C., 300° C., 250° C., 225° C., 200° C., or 150°C. In an embodiment (for example, for a tar sands formation), a maximumtemperature of the temperature limited heater is less than about 250° C.to inhibit olefin generation and production of other cracked products.In some embodiments, a maximum temperature of the temperature limitedheater is above about 250° C. to produce lighter hydrocarbon products.In some embodiments, the maximum temperature of the heater may be at orless than about 500° C.

A heater may heat a volume of formation adjacent to a productionwellbore (a near production wellbore region) so that the temperature offluid in the production wellbore and in the volume adjacent to theproduction wellbore is less than the temperature that causes degradationof the fluid. The heat source may be located in the production wellboreor near the production wellbore. In some embodiments, the heat source isa temperature limited heater. In some embodiments, two or more heatsources may supply heat to the volume. Heat from the heat source mayreduce the viscosity of crude oil in or near the production wellbore. Insome embodiments, heat from the heat source mobilizes fluids in or nearthe production wellbore and/or enhances the flow of fluids to theproduction wellbore. In some embodiments, reducing the viscosity ofcrude oil allows or enhances gas lifting of heavy oil (at most about 10°API gravity oil) or intermediate gravity oil (approximately 12° to 20°API gravity oil) from the production wellbore. In certain embodiments,the initial API gravity of oil in the formation is at most 10°, at most20°, at most 25°, or at most 30°. In certain embodiments, the viscosityof oil in the formation is at least 0.05 Pa·s (50 cp). In someembodiments, the viscosity of oil in the formation is at least 0.10 Pa·s(100 cp), at least 0.15 Pa·s (150 cp), or at least at least 0.20 Pa·s(200 cp). Large amounts of natural gas may have to be utilized toprovide gas lift of oil with viscosities above 0.05 Pa·s. Reducing theviscosity of oil at or near the production wellbore in the formation toa viscosity of 0.05 Pa·s (50 cp), 0.03 Pa·s (30 cp), 0.02 Pa·s (20 cp),0.01 Pa·s (10 cp), or less (down to 0.001 Pa·s (1 cp) or lower) lowersthe amount of natural gas or other fluid needed to lift oil from theformation. In some embodiments, reduced viscosity oil is produced byother methods such as pumping.

The rate of production of oil from the formation may be increased byraising the temperature at or near a production wellbore to reduce theviscosity of the oil in the formation in and adjacent to the productionwellbore. In certain embodiments, the rate of production of oil from theformation is increased by 2 times, 3 times, 4 times, or greater overstandard cold production with no external heating of formation duringproduction. Certain formations may be more economically viable forenhanced oil production using the heating of the near productionwellbore region. Formations that have a cold production rateapproximately between 0.05 m³/(day per meter of wellbore length) and0.20 m³/(day per meter of wellbore length) may have significantimprovements in production rate using heating to reduce the viscosity inthe near production wellbore region. In some formations, productionwells up to 775 m, up to 1000 m, or up to 1500 m in length are used.Thus, a significant increase in production is achievable in someformations. Heating the near production wellbore region may be used informations where the cold production rate is not between 0.05 m³/(dayper meter of wellbore length) and 0.20 m³/(day per meter of wellborelength), but heating such formations may not be as economicallyfavorable. Higher cold production rates may not be significantlyincreased by heating the near wellbore region, while lower productionrates may not be increased to an economically useful value.

Using the temperature limited heater to reduce the viscosity of oil ator near the production well inhibits problems associated withnon-temperature limited heaters and heating the oil in the formation dueto hot spots. One possible problem is that non-temperature limitedheaters can cause coking of oil at or near the production well if theheater overheats the oil because the heaters are at too high atemperature. Higher temperatures in the production well may also causebrine to boil in the well, which may lead to scale formation in thewell. Non-temperature limited heaters that reach higher temperatures mayalso cause damage to other wellbore components (for example, screensused for sand control, pumps, or valves). Hot spots may be caused byportions of the formation expanding against or collapsing on the heater.In some embodiments, the heater (either the temperature limited heateror another type of non-temperature limited heater) has sections that arelower because of sagging over long heater distances. These lowersections may sit in heavy oil or bitumen that collects in lower portionsof the wellbore. At these lower sections, the heater may develop hotspots due to coking of the heavy oil or bitumen. A standardnon-temperature limited heater may overheat at these hot spots, thusproducing a non-uniform amount of heat along the length of the heater.Using the temperature limited heater may inhibit overheating of theheater at hot spots or lower sections and provide more uniform heatingalong the length of the wellbore.

In certain embodiments, fluids in the relatively permeable formationcontaining heavy hydrocarbons are produced with little or nopyrolyzation of hydrocarbons in the formation. In certain embodiments,the relatively permeable formation containing heavy hydrocarbons is atar sands formation. For example, the formation may be a tar sandsformation such as the Athabasca tar sands formation in Alberta, Canadaor a carbonate formation such as the Grosmont carbonate formation inAlberta, Canada. The fluids produced from the formation are mobilizedfluids. Producing mobilized fluids may be more economical than producingpyrolyzed fluids from the tar sands formation. Producing mobilizedfluids may also increase the total amount of hydrocarbons produced fromthe tar sands formation.

FIGS. 117-120 depict side view representations of embodiments forproducing mobilized fluids from tar sands formations. In FIGS. 117-120,heaters 412 have substantially horizontal heating sections inhydrocarbon layer 388 (as shown, the heaters have heating sections thatgo into and out of the page). Hydrocarbon layer 388 may be belowoverburden 400. FIG. 117 depicts a side view representation of anembodiment for producing mobilized fluids from a tar sands formationwith a relatively thin hydrocarbon layer. FIG. 118 depicts a side viewrepresentation of an embodiment for producing mobilized fluids from ahydrocarbon layer that is thicker than the hydrocarbon layer depicted inFIG. 117. FIG. 119 depicts a side view representation of an embodimentfor producing mobilized fluids from a hydrocarbon layer that is thickerthan the hydrocarbon layer depicted in FIG. 118. FIG. 120 depicts a sideview representation of an embodiment for producing mobilized fluids froma tar sands formation with a hydrocarbon layer that has a shale break.

In FIG. 117, heaters 412 are placed in an alternating triangular patternin hydrocarbon layer 388. In FIGS. 118, 119, and 120, heaters 412 areplaced in an alternating triangular pattern in hydrocarbon layer 388that repeats vertically to encompass a majority or all of thehydrocarbon layer. In FIG. 120, the alternating triangular pattern ofheaters 412 in hydrocarbon layer 388 repeats uninterrupted across shalebreak 600. In FIGS. 117-120, heaters 412 may be equidistantly spacedfrom each other. In the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 117-120, thenumber of vertical rows of heaters 412 depends on factors such as, butnot limited to, the desired spacing between the heaters, the thicknessof hydrocarbon layer 388, and/or the number and location of shale breaks600. In some embodiments, heaters 412 are arranged in other patterns.For example, heaters 412 may be arranged in patterns such as, but notlimited to, hexagonal patterns, square patterns, or rectangularpatterns.

In the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 117-120, heaters 412 provide heatthat mobilizes hydrocarbons (reduces the viscosity of the hydrocarbons)in hydrocarbon layer 388. In certain embodiments, heaters 412 provideheat that reduces the viscosity of the hydrocarbons in hydrocarbon layer388 below about 0.50 Pa·s (500 cp), below about 0.10 Pa·s (100 cp), orbelow about 0.05 Pa·s (50 cp). The spacing between heaters 412 and/orthe heat output of the heaters may be designed and/or controlled toreduce the viscosity of the hydrocarbons in hydrocarbon layer 388 todesirable values. Heat provided by heaters 412 may be controlled so thatlittle or no pyrolyzation occurs in hydrocarbon layer 388. Superpositionof heat between the heaters may create one or more drainage paths (forexample, paths for flow of fluids) between the heaters. In certainembodiments, production wells 206A and/or production wells 206B arelocated proximate heaters 412 so that heat from the heaters superimposesover the production wells. The superimposition of heat from heaters 412over production wells 206A and/or production wells 206B creates one ormore drainage paths from the heaters to the production wells. In certainembodiments, one or more of the drainage paths converge. For example,the drainage paths may converge at or near a bottommost heater and/orthe drainage paths may converge at or near production wells 206A and/orproduction wells 206B. Fluids mobilized in hydrocarbon layer 388 tend toflow towards the bottommost heaters 412, production wells 206A and/orproduction wells 206B in the hydrocarbon layer because of gravity andthe heat and pressure gradients established by the heaters and/or theproduction wells. The drainage paths and/or the converged drainage pathsallow production wells 206A and/or production wells 206B to collectmobilized fluids in hydrocarbon layer 388.

In certain embodiments, hydrocarbon layer 388 has sufficientpermeability to allow mobilized fluids to drain to production wells 206Aand/or production wells 206B. For example, hydrocarbon layer 388 mayhave a permeability of at least about 0.1 darcy, at least about 1 darcy,at least about 10 darcy, or at least about 100 darcy. In someembodiments, hydrocarbon layer 388 has a relatively large verticalpermeability to horizontal permeability ratio (K_(v)/K_(h)). Forexample, hydrocarbon layer 388 may have a K_(v)/K_(h) ratio betweenabout 0.01 and about 2, between about 0.1 and about 1, or between about0.3 and about 0.7.

In certain embodiments, fluids are produced through production wells206A located near heaters 412 in the lower portion of hydrocarbon layer388. In some embodiments, fluids are produced through production wells206B located below and approximately midway between heaters 412 in thelower portion of hydrocarbon layer 388. At least a portion of productionwells 206A and/or production wells 206B may be oriented substantiallyhorizontal in hydrocarbon layer 388 (as shown in FIGS. 117-120, theproduction wells have horizontal portions that go into and out of thepage). Production wells 206A and/or 206B may be located proximate lowerportion heaters 412 or the bottommost heaters.

In some embodiments, production wells 206A are positioned substantiallyvertically below the bottommost heaters in hydrocarbon layer 388.Production wells 206A may be located below heaters 412 at the bottomvertex of a pattern of the heaters (for example, at the bottom vertex ofthe triangular pattern of heaters depicted in FIGS. 117-120). Locatingproduction wells 206A substantially vertically below the bottommostheaters may allow for efficient collection of mobilized fluids fromhydrocarbon layer 388.

In certain embodiments, the bottommost heaters are located between about2 m and about 10 m from the bottom of hydrocarbon layer 388, betweenabout 4 m and about 8 m from the bottom of the hydrocarbon layer, orbetween about 5 m and about 7 m from the bottom of the hydrocarbonlayer. In certain embodiments, production wells 206A and/or productionwells 206B are located at a distance from the bottommost heaters 412that allows heat from the heaters to superimpose over the productionwells but at a distance from the heaters that inhibits coking at theproduction wells. Production wells 206A and/or production wells 206B maybe located a distance from the nearest heater (for example, thebottommost heater) of at most ¾ of the spacing between heaters in thepattern of heaters (for example, the triangular pattern of heatersdepicted in FIGS. 117-120). In some embodiments, production wells 206Aand/or production wells 206B are located a distance from the nearestheater of at most ⅔, at most ½, or at most ⅓ of the spacing betweenheaters in the pattern of heaters. In certain embodiments, productionwells 206A and/or production wells 206B are located between about 2 mand about 10 m from the bottommost heaters, between about 4 m and about8 m from the bottommost heaters, or between about 5 m and about 7 m fromthe bottommost heaters. Production wells 206A and/or production wells206B may be located between about 0.5 m and about 8 m from the bottom ofhydrocarbon layer 388, between about 1 m and about 5 m from the bottomof the hydrocarbon layer, or between about 2 m and about 4 m from thebottom of the hydrocarbon layer.

In some embodiments, at least some production wells 206A are locatedsubstantially vertically below heaters 412 near shale break 600, asdepicted in FIG. 120. Production wells 206A may be located betweenheaters 412 and shale break 600 to produce fluids that flow and collectabove the shale break. Shale break 600 may be an impermeable barrier inhydrocarbon layer 388. In some embodiments, shale break 600 has athickness between about 1 m and about 6 m, between about 2 m and about 5m, or between about 3 m and about 4 m. Production wells 206A betweenheaters 412 and shale break 600 may produce fluids from the upperportion of hydrocarbon layer 388 (above the shale break) and productionwells 206A below the bottommost heaters in the hydrocarbon layer mayproduce fluids from the lower portion of the hydrocarbon layer (belowthe shale break), as depicted in FIG. 120. In some embodiments, two ormore shale breaks may exist in a hydrocarbon layer. In such anembodiment, production wells are placed at or near each of the shalebreaks to produce fluids flowing and collecting above the shale breaks.

In some embodiments, shale break 600 breaks down (is desiccated ordecomposes) as the shale break is heated by heaters 412 on either sideof the shale break. As shale break 600 breaks down, the permeability ofthe shale break increases and fluids flow through the shale break. Oncefluids are able to flow through shale break 600, production wells abovethe shale break may not be needed for production as fluids can flow toproduction wells at or near the bottom of hydrocarbon layer 388 and beproduced there.

In certain embodiments, the bottommost heaters above shale break 600 arelocated between about 2 m and about 10 m from the shale break, betweenabout 4 m and about 8 m from the bottom of the shale break, or betweenabout 5 m and about 7 m from the shale break. Production wells 206A maybe located between about 2 m and about 10 m from the bottommost heatersabove shale break 600, between about 4 m and about 8 m from thebottommost heaters above the shale break, or between about 5 m and about7 m from the bottommost heaters above the shale break. Production wells206A may be located between about 0.5 m and about 8 m from shale break600, between about 1 m and about 5 m from the shale break, or betweenabout 2 m and about 4 m from the shale break.

In some embodiments, heat is provided in production wells 206A and/orproduction wells 206B, depicted in FIGS. 117-120. Providing heat inproduction wells 206A and/or production wells 206B may maintain and/orenhance the mobility of the fluids in the production wells. Heatprovided in production wells 206A and/or production wells 206B maysuperimpose with heat from heaters 412 to create the flow path from theheaters to the production wells. In some embodiments, production wells206A and/or production wells 206B include a pump to move fluids to thesurface of the formation. In some embodiments, the viscosity of fluids(oil) in production wells 206A and/or production wells 206B is loweredusing heaters and/or diluent injection (for example, using a conduit inthe production wells for injecting the diluent).

In certain embodiments, in situ heat treatment of the relativelypermeable formation containing hydrocarbons (for example, the tar sandsformation) includes heating the formation to visbreaking temperatures.For example, the formation may be heated to temperatures between about100° C. and 260° C., between about 150° C. and about 250° C., betweenabout 200° C. and about 240° C., between about 205° C. and 230° C.,between about 210° C. and 225° C. In one embodiment, the formation isheated to a temperature of about 220° C. In one embodiment, theformation is heated to a temperature of about 230° C. At visbreakingtemperatures, fluids in the formation have a reduced viscosity (versustheir initial viscosity at initial formation temperature) that allowsfluids to flow in the formation. The reduced viscosity at visbreakingtemperatures may be a permanent reduction in viscosity as thehydrocarbons go through a step change in viscosity at visbreakingtemperatures (versus heating to mobilization temperatures, which mayonly temporarily reduce the viscosity). The visbroken fluids may haveAPI gravities that are relatively low (for example, at most about 10°,about 12°, about 15°, or about 19° API gravity), but the API gravitiesare higher than the API gravity of non-visbroken fluid from theformation. The non-visbroken fluid from the formation may have an APIgravity of 7° or less.

In some embodiments, heaters in the formation are operated at full poweroutput to heat the formation to visbreaking temperatures or highertemperatures. Operating at full power may rapidly increase the pressurein the formation. In certain embodiments, fluids are produced from theformation to maintain a pressure in the formation below a selectedpressure as the temperature of the formation increases. In someembodiments, the selected pressure is a fracture pressure of theformation. In certain embodiments, the selected pressure is betweenabout 1000 kPa and about 15000 kPa, between about 2000 kPa and about10000 kPa, or between about 2500 kPa and about 5000 kPa. In oneembodiment, the selected pressure is about 10000 kPa. Maintaining thepressure as close to the fracture pressure as possible may minimize thenumber of production wells needed for producing fluids from theformation.

In certain embodiments, treating the formation includes maintaining thetemperature at or near visbreaking temperatures (as described above)during the entire production phase while maintaining the pressure belowthe fracture pressure. The heat provided to the formation may be reducedor eliminated to maintain the temperature at or near visbreakingtemperatures. Heating to visbreaking temperatures but maintaining thetemperature below pyrolysis temperatures or near pyrolysis temperatures(for example, below about 230° C.) inhibits coke formation and/or higherlevel reactions. Heating to visbreaking temperatures at higher pressures(for example, pressures near but below the fracture pressure) keepsproduced gases in the liquid oil (hydrocarbons) in the formation andincreases hydrogen reduction in the formation with higher hydrogenpartial pressures. Heating the formation to only visbreakingtemperatures also uses less energy input than heating the formation topyrolysis temperatures.

Fluids produced from the formation may include visbroken fluids,mobilized fluids, and/or pyrolyzed fluids. In some embodiments, aproduced mixture that includes these fluids is produced from theformation. The produced mixture may have assessable properties (forexample, measurable properties). The produced mixture properties aredetermined by operating conditions in the formation being treated (forexample, temperature and/or pressure in the formation). In certainembodiments, the operating conditions may be selected, varied, and/ormaintained to produce desirable properties in hydrocarbons in theproduced mixture. For example, the produced mixture may includehydrocarbons that have properties that allow the mixture to be easilytransported (for example, sent through a pipeline without adding diluentor blending the mixture and/or resulting hydrocarbons with anotherfluid).

In some embodiments, after the formation reaches visbreakingtemperatures, the pressure in the formation is reduced. In certainembodiments, the pressure in the formation is reduced at temperaturesabove visbreaking temperatures. Reducing the pressure at highertemperatures allows more of the hydrocarbons in the formation to beconverted to higher quality hydrocarbons by visbreaking and/orpyrolysis. Allowing the formation to reach higher temperatures beforepressure reduction, however, may increase the amount of carbon dioxideproduced and/or the amount of coking in the formation. For example, insome formations, coking of bitumen (at pressures above 700 kPa) beginsat about 280° C. and reaches a maximum rate at about 340° C. Atpressures below about 700 kPa, the coking rate in the formation isminimal. Allowing the formation to reach higher temperatures beforepressure reduction may decrease the amount of hydrocarbons produced fromthe formation.

In certain embodiments, the temperature in the formation (for example,an average temperature of the formation) when the pressure in theformation is reduced is selected to balance one or more factors. Thefactors considered may include: the quality of hydrocarbons produced,the amount of hydrocarbons produced, the amount of carbon dioxideproduced, the amount hydrogen sulfide produced, the degree of coking inthe formation, and/or the amount of water produced. Experimentalassessments using formation samples and/or simulated assessments basedon the formation properties may be used to assess results of treatingthe formation using the in situ heat treatment process. These resultsmay be used to determine a selected temperature, or temperature range,for when the pressure in the formation is to be reduced. The selectedtemperature, or temperature range, may also be affected by factors suchas, but not limited to, hydrocarbon or oil market conditions and othereconomic factors. In certain embodiments, the selected temperature is ina range between about 275° C. and about 305° C., between about 280° C.and about 300° C., or between about 285° C. and about 295° C.

In certain embodiments, an average temperature in the formation isassessed from an analysis of fluids produced from the formation. Forexample, the average temperature of the formation may be assessed froman analysis of the fluids that have been produced to maintain thepressure in the formation below the fracture pressure of the formation.

In some embodiments, values of the hydrocarbon isomer shift in fluids(for example, gases) produced from the formation is used to indicate theaverage temperature in the formation. Experimental analysis and/orsimulation may be used to assess one or more hydrocarbon isomer shiftsand relate the values of the hydrocarbon isomer shifts to the averagetemperature in the formation. The assessed relation between thehydrocarbon isomer shifts and the average temperature may then be usedin the field to assess the average temperature in the formation bymonitoring one or more of the hydrocarbon isomer shifts in fluidsproduced from the formation. In some embodiments, the pressure in theformation is reduced when the monitored hydrocarbon isomer shift reachesa selected value. The selected value of the hydrocarbon isomer shift maybe chosen based on the selected temperature, or temperature range, inthe formation for reducing the pressure in the formation and theassessed relation between the hydrocarbon isomer shift and the averagetemperature. Examples of hydrocarbon isomer shifts that may be assessedinclude, but are not limited to, n-butane-δ¹³C₄ percentage versuspropane-δ¹³C₃ percentage, n-pentane-δ¹³C₅ percentage versuspropane-δ¹³C₃ percentage, n-pentane-δ¹³C₅ percentage versusn-butane-δ¹³C₄ percentage, and i-pentane-δ¹³C₅ percentage versusi-butane-δ¹³C₄ percentage. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon isomershift in produced fluids is used to indicate the amount of conversion(for example, amount of pyrolysis) that has taken place in theformation.

In some embodiments, weight percentages of saturates in fluids producedfrom the formation is used to indicate the average temperature in theformation. Experimental analysis and/or simulation may be used to assessthe weight percentage of saturates as a function of the averagetemperature in the formation. For example, SARA (Saturates, Aromatics,Resins, and Asphaltenes) analysis (sometimes referred to asAsphaltene/Wax/Hydrate Deposition analysis) may be used to assess theweight percentage of saturates in a sample of fluids from the formation.In some formations, the weight percentage of saturates has a linearrelationship to the average temperature in the formation. The relationbetween the weight percentage of saturates and the average temperaturemay then be used in the field to assess the average temperature in theformation by monitoring the weight percentage of saturates in fluidsproduced from the formation. In some embodiments, the pressure in theformation is reduced when the monitored weight percentage of saturatesreaches a selected value. The selected value of the weight percentage ofsaturates may be chosen based on the selected temperature, ortemperature range, in the formation for reducing the pressure in theformation and the relation between the weight percentage of saturatesand the average temperature. In some embodiments, the selected value ofweight percentage of saturates is between about 20% and about 40%,between about 25% and about 35%, or between about 28% and about 32%. Forexample, the selected value may be about 30% by weight saturates.

In some embodiments, weight percentages of n-C₇ in fluids produced fromthe formation is used to indicate the average temperature in theformation. Experimental analysis and/or simulation may be used to assessthe weight percentages of n-C₇ as a function of the average temperaturein the formation. In some formations, the weight percentages of n-C₇ hasa linear relationship to the average temperature in the formation. Therelation between the weight percentages of n-C₇ and the averagetemperature may then be used in the field to assess the averagetemperature in the formation by monitoring the weight percentages ofn-C₇ in fluids produced from the formation. In some embodiments, thepressure in the formation is reduced when the monitored weightpercentage of n-C₇ reaches a selected value. The selected value of theweight percentage of n-C₇ may be chosen based on the selectedtemperature, or temperature range, in the formation for reducing thepressure in the formation and the relation between the weight percentageof n-C₇ and the average temperature. In some embodiments, the selectedvalue of weight percentage of n-C₇ is between about 50% and about 70%,between about 55% and about 65%, or between about 58% and about 62%. Forexample, the selected value may be about 60% by weight n-C₇.

The pressure in the formation may be reduced by producing fluids (forexample, visbroken fluids and/or mobilized fluids) from the formation.In some embodiments, the pressure is reduced below a pressure at whichfluids coke in the formation to inhibit coking at pyrolysistemperatures. For example, the pressure is reduced to a pressure belowabout 1000 kPa, below about 800 kPa, or below about 700 kPa (forexample, about 690 kPa). In certain embodiments, the selected pressureis at least about 100 kPa, at least about 200 kPa, or at least about 300kPa. The pressure may be reduced to inhibit coking of asphaltenes orother high molecular weight hydrocarbons in the formation. In someembodiments, the pressure may be maintained below a pressure at whichwater passes through a liquid phase at downhole (formation) temperaturesto inhibit liquid water and dolomite reactions. After reducing thepressure in the formation, the temperature may be increased to pyrolysistemperatures to begin pyrolyzation and/or upgrading of fluids in theformation. The pyrolyzed and/or upgraded fluids may be produced from theformation.

In certain embodiments, the amount of fluids produced at temperaturesbelow visbreaking temperatures, the amount of fluids produced atvisbreaking temperatures, the amount of fluids produced before reducingthe pressure in the formation, and/or the amount of upgraded orpyrolyzed fluids produced may be varied to control the quality andamount of fluids produced from the formation and the total recovery ofhydrocarbons from the formation. For example, producing more fluidduring the early stages of treatment (for example, producing fluidsbefore reducing the pressure in the formation) may increase the totalrecovery of hydrocarbons from the formation while reducing the overallquality (lowering the overall API gravity) of fluid produced from theformation. The overall quality is reduced because more heavyhydrocarbons are produced by producing more fluids at the lowertemperatures. Producing less fluids at the lower temperatures mayincrease the overall quality of the fluids produced from the formationbut may lower the total recovery of hydrocarbons from the formation. Thetotal recovery may be lower because more coking occurs in the formationwhen less fluids are produced at lower temperatures.

In certain embodiments, the formation is heated using isolated cells ofheaters (cells or sections of the formation that are not interconnectedfor fluid flow). The isolated cells may be created by using largerheater spacings in the formation. For example, large heater spacings maybe used in the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 117-120. These isolatedcells may be produced during early stages of heating (for example, attemperatures below visbreaking temperatures). Because the cells areisolated from other cells in the formation, the pressures in theisolated cells are high and more liquids are producible from theisolated cells. Thus, more liquids may be produced from the formationand a higher total recovery of hydrocarbons may be reached. During laterstages of heating, the heat gradient may interconnect the isolated cellsand pressures in the formation will drop.

In certain embodiments, the heat gradient in the formation is modifiedso that a gas cap is created at or near an upper portion of thehydrocarbon layer. For example, the heat gradient made by heaters 412depicted in the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 117-120 may be modified tocreate the gas cap at or near overburden 400 of hydrocarbon layer 388.The gas cap may push or drive liquids to the bottom of the hydrocarbonlayer so that more liquids may be produced from the formation. In situgeneration of the gas cap may be more efficient than introducingpressurized fluid into the formation. The in situ generated gas capapplies force evenly through the formation with little or no channelingor fingering that may reduce the effectiveness of introduced pressurizedfluid.

In certain embodiments, the number and/or location of production wellsin the formation is varied based on the viscosity of fluid in theformation. The viscosities in the zones may be assessed before placingthe production wells in the formation, before heating the formation,and/or after heating the formation. In some embodiments, more productionwells are located in zones in the formation that have lower viscosities.For example, in certain formations, upper portions, or zones, of theformation may have lower viscosities. In some embodiments, moreproduction wells are located in the upper zones. Producing throughproduction wells in the less viscous zones of the formation may resultin production of higher quality (more upgraded) oil from the formation.

In some embodiments, more production wells are located in zones in theformation that have higher viscosities. Pressure propagation may beslower in the zones with higher viscosities. The slower pressurepropagation may make it more difficult to control pressure in the zoneswith higher viscosities. Thus, more production wells may be located inthe zones with higher viscosities to provide better pressure control inthese zones.

In some embodiments, zones in the formation with different assessedviscosities are heated at different rates. In certain embodiments, zonesin the formation with higher viscosities are heated at higher heatingrates than zones with lower viscosities. Heating the zones with higherviscosities at the higher heating rates mobilizes and/or upgrades thesezones at a faster rate so that these zones may “catch up” in viscosityand/or quality to the slower heated zones.

In some embodiments, the heater spacing is varied to provide differentheating rates to zones in the formation with different assessedviscosities. For example, denser heater spacings (less spaces betweenheaters) may be used in zones with higher viscosities to heat thesezones at higher heating rates. In some embodiments, a production well(for example, a substantially vertical production well) is located inthe zones with denser heater spacings and higher viscosities. Theproduction well may be used to remove fluids from the formation andrelieve pressure from the higher viscosity zones. In some embodiments,one or more substantially vertical openings, or production wells, arelocated in the higher viscosity zones to allow fluids to drain in thehigher viscosity zones. The draining fluids may be produced from theformation through production wells located near the bottom of the higherviscosity zones.

In certain embodiments, production wells are located in more than onezone in the formation. The zones may have different initialpermeabilities. In certain embodiments, a first zone has an initialpermeability of at least about 1 darcy and a second zone has an initialpermeability of at most about 0.1 darcy. In some embodiments, the firstzone has an initial permeability of between about 1 darcy and about 10darcy. In some embodiments, the second zone has an initial permeabilitybetween about 0.01 darcy and 0.1 darcy. The zones may be separated by asubstantially impermeable barrier (with an initial permeability of about10 μdarcy or less). Having the production well located in both zonesallows for fluid communication (permeability) between the zones and/orpressure equalization between the zones.

In some embodiments, openings (for example, substantially verticalopenings) are formed between zones with different initial permeabilitiesthat are separated by a substantially impermeable barrier. Bridging thezones with the openings allows for fluid communication (permeability)between the zones and/or pressure equalization between the zones. Insome embodiments, openings in the formation (such as pressure reliefopenings and/or production wells) allow gases or low viscosity fluids torise in the openings. As the gases or low viscosity fluids rise, thefluids may condense or increase viscosity in the openings so that thefluids drain back down the openings to be further upgraded in theformation. Thus, the openings may act as heat pipes by transferring heatfrom the lower portions to the upper portions where the fluids condense.The wellbores may be packed and sealed near or at the overburden toinhibit transport of formation fluid to the surface.

In some embodiments, production of fluids is continued after reducingand/or turning off heating of the formation. The formation may be heatedfor a selected time. The formation may be heated until it reaches aselected average temperature. Production from the formation may continueafter the selected time. Continuing production may produce more fluidfrom the formation as fluids drain towards the bottom of the formationand/or as fluids are upgraded by passing by hot spots in the formation.In some embodiments, a horizontal production well is located at or nearthe bottom of the formation (or a zone of the formation) to producefluids after heating is turned down and/or off.

In certain embodiments, initially produced fluids (for example, fluidsproduced below visbreaking temperatures), fluids produced at visbreakingtemperatures, and/or other viscous fluids produced from the formationare blended with diluent to produce fluids with lower viscosities. Insome embodiments, the diluent includes upgraded or pyrolyzed fluidsproduced from the formation. In some embodiments, the diluent includesupgraded or pyrolyzed fluids produced from another portion of theformation or another formation. In certain embodiments, the amount offluids produced at temperatures below visbreaking temperatures and/orfluids produced at visbreaking temperatures that are blended withupgraded fluids from the formation is adjusted to create a fluidsuitable for transportation and/or use in a refinery. The amount ofblending may be adjusted so that the fluid has chemical and physicalstability. Maintaining the chemical and physical stability of the fluidmay allow the fluid to be transported, reduce pre-treatment processes ata refinery and/or reduce or eliminate the need for adjusting therefinery process to compensate for the fluid.

In certain embodiments, formation conditions (for example, pressure andtemperature) and/or fluid production are controlled to produce fluidswith selected properties. For example, formation conditions and/or fluidproduction may be controlled to produce fluids with a selected APIgravity and/or a selected viscosity. The selected API gravity and/orselected viscosity may be produced by combining fluids produced atdifferent formation conditions (for example, combining fluids producedat different temperatures during the treatment as described above). Asan example, formation conditions and/or fluid production may becontrolled to produce fluids with an API gravity of about 19° and aviscosity of about 0.35 Pa·s (350 cp) at 5° C.

In certain embodiments, a drive process (for example, a steam injectionprocess such as cyclic steam injection, a steam assisted gravitydrainage process (SAGD), a solvent injection process, a vapor solventand SAGD process, or a carbon dioxide injection process) is used totreat the tar sands formation in addition to the in situ heat treatmentprocess. In some embodiments, heaters are used to create highpermeability zones (or injection zones) in the formation for the driveprocess. Heaters may be used to create a mobilization geometry orproduction network in the formation to allow fluids to flow through theformation during the drive process. For example, heaters may be used tocreate drainage paths between the heaters and production wells for thedrive process. In some embodiments, the heaters are used to provide heatduring the drive process. The amount of heat provided by the heaters maybe small compared to the heat input from the drive process (for example,the heat input from steam injection).

The concentration of components in the formation and/or produced fluidsmay change during an in situ heat treatment process. As theconcentration of the components in the formation and/or produced fluidsand/or hydrocarbons separated from the produced fluid changes due toformation of the components, solubility of the components in theproduced fluids and/or separated hydrocarbons tends to change.Hydrocarbons separated from the produced fluid may be hydrocarbons thathave been treated to remove salty water and/or gases from the producedfluid. For example, the produced fluids and/or separated hydrocarbonsmay contain components that are soluble in the condensable hydrocarbonportion of the produced fluids at the beginning of processing. Asproperties of the hydrocarbons in the produced fluids change (forexample, TAN, asphaltenes, P-value, olefin content, mobilized fluidscontent, visbroken fluids content, pyrolyzed fluids content, orcombinations thereof), the components may tend to become less soluble inthe produced fluids and/or in the hydrocarbon stream separated from theproduced fluids. In some instances, components in the produced fluidsand/or components in the separated hydrocarbons may form two phasesand/or become insoluble. Formation of two phases, through flocculationof asphaltenes, change in concentration of components in the producedfluids, change in concentration of components in separated hydrocarbons,and/or precipitation of components may result in hydrocarbons that donot meet pipeline, transportation, and/or refining specifications.Additionally, the efficiency of the process may be reduced. For example,further treatment of the produced fluids and/or separated hydrocarbonsmay be necessary to produce products with desired properties.

During processing, the P-value of the separated hydrocarbons may bemonitored and the stability of the produced fluids and/or separatedhydrocarbons may be assessed. Typically, a P-value that is at most 1.0indicates that flocculation of asphaltenes from the separatedhydrocarbons generally occurs. If the P-value is initially at least 1.0,and such P-value increases or is relatively stable during heating, thenthis indicates that the separated hydrocarbons are relatively stable.Stability of separated hydrocarbons, as assessed by P-value, may becontrolled by controlling operating conditions in the formation such astemperature, pressure, hydrogen uptake, hydrocarbon feed flow, orcombinations thereof.

In some embodiments, change in API gravity may not occur unless theformation temperature is at least 100° C. For some formations,temperatures of at least 220° C. may be required to produce hydrocarbonsthat meet desired specifications. At increased temperatures cokeformation may occur, even at elevated pressures. As the properties ofthe formation are changed, the P-value of the separated hydrocarbons maydecrease below 1.0 and/or sediment may form, causing the separatedhydrocarbons to become unstable.

In some embodiments, olefins may form during heating of formation fluidsto produce fluids having a reduced viscosity. Separated hydrocarbonsthat include olefins may be unacceptable for processing facilities.Olefins in the separated hydrocarbons may cause fouling and/or cloggingof processing equipment. For example, separated hydrocarbons thatcontains olefins may cause coking of distillation units in a refinery,which results in frequent down time to remove the coked material fromthe distillation units.

During processing, the olefin content of separated hydrocarbons may bemonitored and quality of the separated hydrocarbons assessed. Typically,separated hydrocarbons having a bromine number of 3% and/or a CAPPolefin number of 3% as 1-decene equivalent indicates that olefinproduction is occurring. If the olefin value decreases or is relativelystable during producing, then this indicates that a minimal orsubstantially low amount of olefins are being produced. Olefin content,as assessed by bromine value and/or CAPP olefin number, may becontrolled by controlling operating conditions in the formation such astemperature, pressure, hydrogen uptake, hydrocarbon feed flow, orcombinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the P-value and/or olefin content may be controlledby controlling operating conditions. For example, if the temperatureincreases above 225° C. and the P-value drops below 1.0, the separatedhydrocarbons may become unstable. Alternatively, the bromine numberand/or CAPP olefin number may increase to above 3%. If the temperatureis maintained below 225° C., minimal changes to the hydrocarbonproperties may occur. In certain embodiments, operating conditions areselected, varied, and/or maintained to produce separated hydrocarbonshaving a P-value of at least about 1, at least about 1.1, at least about1.2, or at least about 1.3. In certain embodiments, operating conditionsare selected, varied, and/or maintained to produce separatedhydrocarbons having a bromine number of at most about 3%, at most about2.5%, at most about 2%, or at most about 1.5%. Heating of the formationat controlled operating conditions includes operating at temperaturesbetween about 100° C. and about 260° C., between about 150° C. and about250° C., between about 200° C. and about 240° C., between about 210° C.and about 230° C., or between about 215° C. and about 225° C. Pressuresmay be between about 1000 kPa and about 15000 kPa, between about 2000kPa and about 10000 kPa, or between about 2500 kPa and about 5000 kPa orat or near a fracture pressure of the formation. In certain embodiments,the selected pressure of about 10000 kPa produces separated hydrocarbonshaving properties acceptable for transportation and/or refineries (forexample, viscosity, P-value, API gravity, and/or olefin content withinacceptable ranges).

Examples of produced mixture properties that may be measured and used toassess the separated hydrocarbon portion of the produced mixtureinclude, but are not limited to, liquid hydrocarbon properties such asAPI gravity, viscosity, asphaltene stability (P-value), and olefincontent (bromine number and/or CAPP number). In certain embodiments,operating conditions in the formation are selected, varied, and/ormaintained to produce an API gravity of at least about 15°, at leastabout 17°, at least about 19°, or at least about 20° in the producedmixture. In certain embodiments, operating conditions in the formationare selected, varied, and/or maintained to produce a viscosity (measuredat 1 atm and 5° C.) of at most about 400 cp, at most about 350 cp, atmost about 250 cp, or at most about 100 cp in the produced mixture. Asan example, the initial viscosity of fluid in the formation is aboveabout 1000 cp or, in some cases, above about 1 million cp. In certainembodiments, operating conditions are selected, varied, and/ormaintained to produce an asphaltene stability (P-value) of at leastabout 1, at least about 1.1, at least about 1.2, or at least about 1.3in the produced mixture. In certain embodiments, operating conditionsare selected, varied, and/or maintained to produce a bromine number ofat most about 3%, at most about 2.5%, at most about 2%, or at most about1.5% in the produced mixture.

In certain embodiments, the mixture is produced from one or moreproduction wells located at or near the bottom of the hydrocarbon layerbeing treated. In other embodiments, the mixture is produced from otherlocations in the hydrocarbon layer being treated (for example, from anupper portion of the layer or a middle portion of the layer).

In one embodiment, the formation is heated to 220° C. or 230° C. whilemaintaining the pressure in the formation below 10000 kPa. The separatedhydrocarbon portion of the mixture produced from the formation may haveseveral desirable properties such as, but not limited to, an API gravityof at least 19°, a viscosity of at most 350 cp, a P-value of at least1.1, and a bromine number of at most 2%. Such separated hydrocarbons maybe transportable through a pipeline without adding diluent or blendingthe mixture with another fluid. The mixture may be produced from one ormore production wells located at or near the bottom of the hydrocarbonlayer being treated.

In some embodiments, a hydrocarbon formation may be treated using an insitu heat treatment process based on assessment of the stability orproduct quality of the formation fluid produced from the formation.Asphaltenes may be produced through thermal cracking and condensation ofhydrocarbons produced during a thermal conversion. The producedasphaltenes are a complex mixture of high molecular weight compoundscontaining polyaromatic rings and short side chains. The structureand/or aromaticity of the asphaltenes may affect the solubility of theasphaltenes in the produced formation fluids. During heating of theformation, at least a portion of the asphaltenes in the formation mayreact with other asphaltenes and form coke or higher molecular weightasphaltenes. Higher molecular weight asphaltenes may be less soluble inproduced formation fluid that includes lower molecular weight compounds(for example, produced formation fluid that includes a significantamount of naphtha or kerosene). As formation fluids are converted toliquid hydrocarbons and the lower boiling hydrocarbons and/or gases areproduced from the formation, the type of asphaltenes and/or solubilityof the asphaltenes in the formation fluid may change. In conventionalprocessing, as the formation is heated, the weight percent ofasphaltenes and/or the H/C molar ratio of the asphaltenes may decreaserelative to an initial weight percent of asphaltenes and/or the H/Cmolar ratio of the asphaltenes. In some instances, the asphaltenecontent may decrease due to the asphaltenes forming coke in theformation. In other instances, the H/C molar ratio may change dependingon the type of asphaltene being produced in the formation.

In some embodiments, antioxidants (for example sulfates) are provided toa hydrocarbon formation to inhibit formation of coke. Antioxidants maybe added to a hydrocarbon containing formation during formation ofwellbores. For example, antioxidants may be added to drilling mud duringdrilling operations. Addition of antioxidants to the hydrocarbonformation may inhibit production of radicals during heating of thehydrocarbon formation, thus inhibiting production of higher molecularcompounds (for example, coke).

Produced formation fluid may be separated into a liquid stream and a gasstream. The separated liquid stream may be blended with otherhydrocarbon fractions, blended with additives to stabilize theasphaltenes, distilled, deasphalted, and/or filtered to removecomponents (for example, asphaltenes) that contribute to the instabilityof the liquid hydrocarbon stream. These treatments, however, may requirecostly solvents and/or be inefficient. Methods to produce liquidhydrocarbon streams that have good product stability are desired.

Adjustment of the asphaltene content of the hydrocarbons in situ mayproduce liquid hydrocarbon streams that require little to no treatmentto stabilize the product with regard to precipitation of asphaltenes. Insome embodiments, an asphaltene content of the hydrocarbons producedduring an in situ heat treatment process may be adjusted in theformation. Changing an aliphatic content of the hydrocarbons in theformation may cause subsurface deasphalting and/or solubilization ofasphaltenes in the hydrocarbons. Subsurface deasphalting of thehydrocarbons may produce solids that precipitate from the formationfluid and remain in the formation.

In some embodiments, heat from a plurality of heaters may be provided toa section located in the formation. The heat may transfer from theheaters to heat a portion of the section. In some embodiments, theportion of the section may be heated to a selected temperature (forexample, the portion may be heated to about 220° C., about 230° C., orabout 240° C.). Hydrocarbons in the section may be mobilized andproduced from the formation. A portion of the produced hydrocarbons maybe assessed using P-value, H/C molar ratio, and/or a volume ratio ofnaphtha/kerosene to hydrocarbons having a boiling point of at least 520°C. in a portion of produced formation fluids, and the stability of theproduced hydrocarbons may be determined. Based on the assessed value,the asphaltene content and/or the asphaltenes H/C molar ratio of thehydrocarbons and/or a volume ratio of naphtha/kerosene to heavyhydrocarbons in a portion of fluids in the formation may be adjusted.

In some embodiments, the asphaltene content of the hydrocarbons may beadjusted based on a selected P-value. If the P-value is greater than aselected value (for example, greater than 1.1 or greater than 1.5), thehydrocarbons produced from the formation may be have acceptableasphaltene stability and the asphaltene content is not adjusted. If theP-value of the portion of the hydrocarbons is less than the selectedvalue, the asphaltene content of the hydrocarbons in the formation maybe adjusted.

In some embodiments, assessing the asphaltene H/C molar ratio inproduced hydrocarbons may indicate that the type of asphaltenes in thehydrocarbons in the formation is changing. Adjustment of the asphaltenecontent of the hydrocarbons in the formation based on the asphaltenesH/C molar ratio in at least a portion of the produced hydrocarbons orwhen the asphaltenes H/C molar ratio reaches a selected value mayproduce liquid hydrocarbons that are suitable for transportation orfurther processing. The asphaltene content may be adjusted when theasphaltene H/C molar ratio of at least a portion of the producedhydrocarbons is less than about 0.8, less than about 0.9, or less thanabout 1. An asphaltene H/C molar ratio of greater than 1 may indicatethat the asphaltenes are soluble in the produced hydrocarbons. Theasphaltene H/C molar ratio may be monitored over time and the asphaltenecontent may be adjusted at a rate to inhibit a net reduction of theassessed asphaltene H/C molar ratio over the monitored time period.

In some embodiments, a volume ratio of naphtha/kerosene to heavyhydrocarbons in the formation may be adjusted based on an assessedvolume ratio of naphtha/kerosene to hydrocarbons having a boiling pointof at least 520° C. in a portion of produced formation fluids.Adjustment of the volume ratio may allow a portion of the asphaltenes inthe formation to precipitate from formation fluid and/or maintain thesolubility of the asphaltenes in the produced hydrocarbons. An assessedvalue of a volume ratio of naphtha/kerosene to hydrocarbons having aboiling point of at least 520° C. of greater than 10 may indicateadjustment of the ratio is necessary. An assessed value of a volumeratio of naphtha/kerosene to hydrocarbons having a boiling point of atleast 520° C. of from about 0 to about 10 may indicate that asphaltenesare sufficiently solubilized in the produced hydrocarbons.Solubilization of asphaltenes in hydrocarbons in the formation mayinhibit a net reduction in a weight percentage of asphaltenes inhydrocarbons in the formation over time Inhibiting a net reduction ofasphaltenes may allow production of hydrocarbons that require no orminimal treatment to inhibit asphaltenes from precipitating from theproduce hydrocarbons during transportation and/or further processing.

In some embodiments, the asphaltene content, asphaltene H/C molar ratioand/or volume ratio of naphtha/kerosene to heavy hydrocarbons may beadjusted by providing hydrocarbons to the formation. The hydrocarbonsmay include, but are not limited to, hydrocarbons having a boiling rangedistribution between 35° C. and 260° C., hydrocarbons having a boilingrange distribution between 38° C. and 200° C. (naphtha), hydrocarbonshaving a boiling range distribution between 204° C. and 260° C.(kerosene), bitumen, or mixtures thereof. The hydrocarbons may beprovided to the section through a production well, injection well,heater well, monitoring well, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the hydrocarbons added to the formation may beproduced from an in situ heat treatment process. FIG. 121 is arepresentation of an embodiment of production and subsequent treating ofa hydrocarbon formation to produce formation fluid. Heat from heaters412 in hydrocarbon layer 388 may mobilize heavy hydrocarbons and/orbitumen towards production well 206A. Hydrocarbons may be produced fromproduction well 206A and may include liquid hydrocarbons having aboiling range distribution between 50° C. and 600° C. and/or bitumen.

Hydrocarbons used for in situ deasphalting may be injected intohydrocarbon layer 388 of the formation through injection well 602.Hydrocarbons may be injected at a sufficient pressure to allow mixing ofthe injected hydrocarbons with heavy hydrocarbons in hydrocarbon layer388. Contact or mixing of hydrocarbons with heavy hydrocarbons inhydrocarbon layer 388 may remove at least a portion of the asphaltenesfrom the hydrocarbons in a section of the hydrocarbon layer. Theresulting deasphalted hydrocarbons may be produced from the formationthrough production well 206B.

In some embodiment, contact or mixing of hydrocarbons with heavyhydrocarbons in hydrocarbon layer 388 may change the volume ratio ofnaphtha/kerosene to heavy hydrocarbons in the section such that thehydrocarbons produced from production well 206B are deemed suitable fortransportation or processing as assessed by P-value, asphaltene H/Cmolar ratio, volume ratio of naphtha/kerosene to hydrocarbons having aboiling point greater than 520° C. or other methods known in the art toassess asphaltene stability.

In some embodiments, moving hydrocarbons from one section of theformation to another section of the formation may be used to adjust theasphaltene content and/or volume ratio of naphtha/kerosene to heavyhydrocarbons in the formation. In some embodiments, bitumen flows fromsection 1402 into section 1404 to change the volume ratio ofnaphtha/kerosene to heavy hydrocarbons to solubilize asphaltenes in themobilized hydrocarbons present in section 1404. Solubilization ofasphaltenes may inhibit a net reduction in a weight percentage ofasphaltenes over time. The produced mobilized hydrocarbons may have anacceptable volume ratio of naphtha/kerosene to hydrocarbons having aboiling point greater than 520° C. and are deemed suitable fortransportation or processing as assessed by P-value, asphaltene H/Cmolar ratio, volume ratio of naphtha/kerosene to hydrocarbons having aboiling point greater than 520° C. or other methods known in the art toassess asphaltene stability.

In some embodiments, a section of the formation is heated to atemperature sufficient to pyrolyze at least a portion of the formationfluids and generate hydrocarbons having a boiling point less than 260°C. The generated hydrocarbons may act as an in situ deasphalting fluid.The generated hydrocarbons may move from a first section of theformation and mix with hydrocarbons in second section of the formation.Mixing of hydrocarbons having a boiling point less than 260° C. withmobilized hydrocarbons present in the formation may reduce thesolubility of asphaltenes in the mobilized hydrocarbons and force atleast a portion of the asphaltenes to precipitate from the mobilizedhydrocarbons.

The precipitated asphaltenes may remain in the formation when thedeasphalted mobilized hydrocarbons are produced from the formation. Insome embodiments, the precipitated asphaltenes may form solid material.The produced deasphalted hydrocarbons may have acceptable P-values (forexample, P-value greater than 1 or 1.5) and/or asphaltene H/C molarratios (asphaltene H/C molar ratio of at least 1). The deasphaltedhydrocarbons may be produced from the formation. The produceddeasphalted hydrocarbons have acceptable asphaltene stability and aresuitable for transportation or further processing. The produceddeasphalted hydrocarbons may require no or very little treatment toinhibit asphaltene precipitation from the hydrocarbon stream whenfurther processed.

In some embodiments, hydrocarbons having a boiling point less than 260°C. may be generated in a first section of the formation and migratethrough an upper portion of the first section to an upper portion of asecond section. In the upper portion of the second section, thehydrocarbons having a boiling point less than 260° C. may contacthydrocarbons in the second section of the formation. Such contact mayremove at least a portion of the asphaltene from the hydrocarbons in theupper portion of second section. At least a portion of the deasphaltedhydrocarbons may be produced from the formation.

In some embodiments, formation fluid may be produced from productionswells in a lower portion of the second section which may allow at leasta portion of hydrocarbons having a boiling point less than 260° C. todrain to and, in some embodiments, condense in the lower portion of thesecond section. Contact of the hydrocarbons having a boiling point lessthan 260° C. with mobilized hydrocarbons in the lower portion of thesecond section may cause asphaltenes to precipitate from thehydrocarbons in the second section, thus removing asphaltenes fromhydrocarbons in the second section. At least a portion of thedeasphalted hydrocarbons may be produced from production wells in alower portion of the second section. In some embodiments, deasphaltedhydrocarbons are produced from other sections of the formation.

In some embodiments, contact of hydrocarbons having a boiling point lessthan 260° C. with mobilized hydrocarbons in the upper and/or lowerportion of the second section may rebalance the naphtha/kerosene toheavy hydrocarbons volume ratio and solubilize asphaltenes in themobilized hydrocarbons in the section. Solubilization of asphaltenes mayinhibit a net reduction in a weight percentage of asphaltenes over timeand, thus produce a more stabile product. Mobilized hydrocarbons may beproduced from the formation. The mobilized hydrocarbons produced fromthe second section may be exhibit more stabile properties than mobilizedhydrocarbons produced from the first section.

Generation and migration of hydrocarbons having a boiling point lessthan 260° C. may be selectively controlled using operating conditions(for example, heating rate, average temperatures in the formation, andproduction rates) in the first, second and/or third sections.

FIG. 122 is a representation of an embodiment of production of in situdeasphalting fluid and use of the in situ deasphalting fluid in treatinga hydrocarbon formation using an in situ heat treatment process. Heaters412 in hydrocarbon layer 388 may provide heat to one or more sections ofthe hydrocarbon layer. Heaters 412 may be substantially horizontal inthe hydrocarbon layer. Heaters 412 may be arranged in any pattern tooptimize heating of portions of first section 1406 and/or portions ofsecond section 1408. Bitumen and/or liquid hydrocarbons may be producedfrom a lower portion of first section 1406 through production wells206A. The temperature in the lower portion of first section 1406 may beraised to a pyrolysis temperature and pyrolysis of formation fluid inthe lower portion may generate an in situ deasphalting fluid. The insitu deasphalting fluid may be a mixture of hydrocarbons having aboiling range distribution between −5° C. and about 300° C., or between−5° C. and about 260° C.

In some embodiments, production well and/or other wells in first section1406 may be shut in to allow the in situ deasphalting fluid to mix withhydrocarbons in the lower portion of the first section. The in situdeasphalting fluid may contact hydrocarbons in first section 1406 andcause at least a portion of asphaltenes to precipitate from thehydrocarbons, thus removing the asphaltenes from the hydrocarbons in theformation. The deasphalted hydrocarbons may be mobilized and producedfrom the formation through production wells 206B in an upper portion offirst section 1406.

At least a portion of in situ deasphalting fluid vaporizes in the upperportion of first section 1406 and move towards an upper portion ofsecond section 1408 as shown by arrows 1410. An average temperature insecond section 1408 may be lower than an average temperature of firstsection 1406. Due to the lower temperature in second section 1408, thein situ deasphalting fluid may condense in the second section. Thetemperature and pressure in second section 1408 may be controlled suchthat substantially all of the in situ deasphalting fluid is present as aliquid in the second section. The in situ deasphalting fluid may contacthydrocarbons in second section 1408 and cause asphaltenes to precipitatefrom the hydrocarbons in the section, thus removing asphaltenes fromhydrocarbons in the second section. At least a portion of thedeasphalted hydrocarbons may be produced from the formation throughproduction wells 206C in an upper portion of second section 1408. Insome embodiments, deasphalted hydrocarbons are moved to a third sectionof hydrocarbon layer 388 and produced from the third section.

In some embodiments, formation fluid may be produced from productionswells 206D in a lower portion of second section 1408. Production offormation fluid from production wells 206D in the lower portion ofsecond section 1408 may allow at least a portion of the in situdeasphalting fluid to drain to the lower portion of the second section.Contact of the in situ deasphalting fluid with hydrocarbons in a lowerportion of second section 1408 may cause asphaltenes to precipitate fromthe hydrocarbons in the section, thus removing asphaltenes fromhydrocarbons in the second section. At least a portion of thedeasphalted hydrocarbons may be produced from production wells 206E inthe middle portion of second section 1408. In some embodiments,deasphalted hydrocarbons are not produced in second section 1408, butflow or be moved towards a third section in hydrocarbon layer 388 andproduced from the third section. The third section may be substantiallybelow or substantially adjacent to second section 1408.

Deasphalted hydrocarbons produced from the formation may be suitable fortransportation, have a P-value greater than 1.5, and/or an asphalteneH/C molar ratio of at least 1. In some embodiments, the produceddeasphalted hydrocarbons contain at least a portion of the in situdeasphalting fluid.

In some embodiments, the in situ deasphalting fluid mixes with mobilizedhydrocarbons and changes the volume ratio of naphtha/kerosene to heavyhydrocarbons such that asphaltenes are solubilized in the mobilizedhydrocarbons. At least a portion of the hydrocarbons containingsolubilized asphaltenes may be produced from production wells 206E in abottom portion of second section 1408. In some embodiments, hydrocarbonscontaining solubilized asphaltenes are produced from a third section ofthe formation. Hydrocarbons containing solubilized asphaltenes producedfrom the formation may be suitable for transportation, have a P-valuegreater than 1.5, and/or an asphaltene H/C molar ratio of at least 1. Insome embodiments, the produced hydrocarbons containing solubilizedasphaltenes contain at least a portion of the in situ deasphaltingfluid.

The in situ heat treatment process may provide less heat to theformation (for example, use a wider heater spacing) if the in situ heattreatment process is followed by a drive process. The drive process mayinvolve introducing a hot fluid into the formation to increase theamount of heat provided to the formation. In some embodiments, theheaters of the in situ heat treatment process may be used to pretreatthe formation to establish injectivity for the subsequent drive process.In some embodiments, the in situ heat treatment process creates orproduces the drive fluid in situ. The in situ produced drive fluid maymove through the formation and move mobilized hydrocarbons from oneportion of the formation to another portion of the formation.

FIG. 123 depicts a top view representation of an embodiment forpreheating using heaters before using the drive process (for example, asteam drive process). Injection wells 602 and production wells 206 aresubstantially vertical wells. Heaters 412 are long substantiallyhorizontal heaters positioned so that the heaters pass in the vicinityof injection wells 602. Heaters 412 intersect the vertical well patternsslightly displaced from the vertical wells.

The vertical location of heaters 412 with respect to injection wells 602and production wells 206 depends on, for example, the verticalpermeability of the formation. In formations with at least some verticalpermeability, injected steam will rise to the top of the permeable layerin the formation. In such formations, heaters 412 may be located nearthe bottom of the hydrocarbon layer 388, as shown in FIG. 124. Informations with very low vertical permeabilities, more than onehorizontal heater may be used with the heaters stacked substantiallyvertically or with heaters at varying depths in the hydrocarbon layer(for example, heater patterns as shown in FIGS. 117-120). The verticalspacing between the horizontal heaters in such formations may correspondto the distance between the heaters and the injection wells. Heaters 412are located in the vicinity of injection wells 602 and/or productionwells 206 so that sufficient energy is delivered by the heaters toprovide flow rates for the drive process that are economically viable.The spacing between heaters 412 and injection wells 602 or productionwells 206 may be varied to provide an economically viable drive process.The amount of preheating may also be varied to provide an economicallyviable process.

In some embodiments, the steam injection (or drive) process (forexample, SAGD, cyclic steam soak, or another steam recovery process) isused to treat the formation and produce hydrocarbons from the formation.The steam injection process may recover a low amount of oil in placefrom the formation (for example, less than 20% recovery of oil in placefrom the formation). The in situ heat treatment process may be usedfollowing the steam injection process to increase the recovery of oil inplace from the formation. In certain embodiments, the steam injectionprocess is used until the steam injection process is no longer efficientat removing hydrocarbons from the formation (for example, until thesteam injection process is no longer economically feasible). The in situheat treatment process is used to produce hydrocarbons remaining in theformation after the steam injection process. Using the in situ heattreatment process after the steam injection process may allow recoveryof at least about 25%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, or atleast about 60% of oil in place in the formation.

In some embodiments, the formation has been at least somewhat heated bythe steam injection process before treating the formation using the insitu heat treatment process. For example, the steam injection processmay heat the formation to an average temperature between about 200° C.and about 250° C., between about 175° C. and about 265° C., or betweenabout 150° C. and about 270° C. In certain embodiments, the heaters areplaced in the formation after the steam injection process is at least50% completed, at least 75% completed, or near 100% completed. Theheaters provide heat for treating the formation using the in situ heattreatment process. In some embodiments, the heaters are already in placein the formation during the steam injection process. In suchembodiments, the heaters may be energized after the steam injectionprocess is completed or when production of hydrocarbons using the steaminjection process is reduced below a desired level. In some embodiments,steam injection wells from the steam injection process are converted toheater wells for the in situ heat treatment process.

Treating the formation with the in situ heat treatment process after thesteam injection process may be more efficient than only treating theformation with the in situ heat treatment process. The steam injectionprocess may provide some energy (heat) to the formation with the steam.Any energy added to the formation during the steam injection processreduces the amount of energy needed to be supplied by heaters for the insitu heat treatment process. Reducing the amount of energy supplied byheaters reduces costs for treating the formation using the in situ heattreatment process.

In certain embodiments, treating the formation using the steam injectionprocess does not treat the formation uniformly. For example, steaminjection may not be uniform throughout the formation. Variations in theproperties of the formation (for example, fluid injectivities,permeabilities, and/or porosities) may result in non-uniform injectionof the steam through the formation. Because of the non-uniform injectionof the steam, the steam may remove hydrocarbons from different portionsof the formation at different rates or with different results. Forexample, some portions of the formation may have little or no steaminjectivity, which inhibits the hydrocarbon production from theseportions. After the steam injection process is completed, the formationmay have portions that have lower amounts of hydrocarbons produced (morehydrocarbons remaining) than other parts of the formation.

FIG. 125 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment of a tarsands formation subsequent to a steam injection process. Injection well602 is used to inject steam into hydrocarbon layer 388 below overburden400. Portion 604 may have little or no steam injectivity and have smallamounts of hydrocarbons or no hydrocarbons at all removed by the steaminjection process. Portions 606 may include portions that have steaminjectivity and measurable amounts of hydrocarbons are removed by thesteam injection process. Thus, portion 604 may have a greater amount ofhydrocarbons remaining than portions 606 following treatment with thesteam injection process. In some embodiments, hydrocarbon layer 388includes two or more portions 604 with more hydrocarbons remaining thanportions 606.

In some embodiments, the portions with more hydrocarbons remaining (suchas portion 604, depicted in FIG. 125) are large portions of theformation. In some embodiments, the amount of hydrocarbons remaining inthese portions is significantly higher than other portions of theformation (such as portions 606). For example, portions 604 may have arecovery of at most about 10% of the oil in place and portions 606 mayhave a recovery of at least about 30% of the oil in place. In someembodiments, portions 604 have a recovery of between about 0% and about10% of the oil in place, between about 0% and about 15% of the oil inplace, or between about 0% and about 20% of the oil in place. Theportions 606 may have a recovery of between about 20% and about 25% ofthe oil in place, between about 20% and about 40% of the oil in place,or between about 20% and about 50% of the oil in place. Coring, loggingtechniques, and/or seismic imaging may be used to assess hydrocarbonsremaining in the formation and assess the location of one or more of thefirst and/or second portions.

In certain embodiments, during the in situ heat treatment process, moreheat is provided to the first portions of the formation that have morehydrocarbons remaining than the second portions with less hydrocarbonsremaining. In some embodiments, heaters are located in the firstportions but not in the second portions. In some embodiments, heatersare located in both the first portions and the second portions but theheaters in the first portions are designed or operated to provide moreheat than the heaters in the second portions. In some embodiments,heaters pass through both first portions and second portions and theheaters are designed or operated to provide more heat in the firstportions than the second portions.

In some embodiments, steam injection is continued during the in situheat treatment process. For example, steam injection may be continuedwhile liquids are being produced from the formation. The steam injectionmay increase the production of liquids from the formation. In certainembodiments, steam injection may be reduced or stopped when gasproduction from the formation begins.

In some embodiments, the formation is treated using the in situ heattreatment process a significant time after the formation has beentreated using the steam injection process. For example, the in situ heattreatment process is used 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, or longer (forexample, 10 years to 20 years) after a formation has been treated usingthe steam injection process. During this dormant period, heat from thesteam injection process may diffuse to cooler parts of the formation andresult in a more uniform preheating of the formation prior to in situheat treatment. The in situ heat treatment process may be used onformations that have been left dormant after the steam injection processtreatment because further hydrocarbon production using the steaminjection process is not possible and/or not economically feasible. Insome embodiments, the formation remains at least somewhat heated fromthe steam injection process even after the significant time.

In certain embodiments, a fluid is injected into the formation (forexample, a drive fluid or an oxidizing fluid) to move hydrocarbonsthrough the formation from a first section to a second section. In someembodiments, the hydrocarbons are moved from the first section to thesecond section through a third section. FIG. 126 depicts a side viewrepresentation of an embodiment using at least three treatment sectionsin a tar sands formation. Hydrocarbon layer 388 may be divided intothree or more treatment sections. In certain embodiments, hydrocarbonlayer 388 includes three different types of treatment sections: section608A, section 608B, and section 608C. Section 608C and sections 608A areseparated by sections 608B. Section 608C, sections 608A, and sections608B may be horizontally displaced from each other in the formation. Insome embodiments, one side of section 608C is adjacent to an edge of thetreatment area of the formation or an untreated section of the formationis left on one side of section 608C before the same or a differentpattern is formed on the opposite side of the untreated section.

In certain embodiments, sections 608A and 608C are heated at or near thesame time to similar temperatures (for example, pyrolysis temperatures).Sections 608A and 608C may be heated to mobilize and/or pyrolyzehydrocarbons in the sections. The mobilized and/or pyrolyzedhydrocarbons may be produced (for example, through one or moreproduction wells) from section 608A and/or section 608C. Section 608Bmay be heated to lower temperatures (for example, mobilizationtemperatures). Little or no production of hydrocarbons to the surfacemay take place through section 608B. For example, sections 608A and 608Cmay be heated to average temperatures of about 300° C. while section608B is heated to an average temperature of about 100° C. and noproduction wells are operated in section 608B.

In certain embodiments, heating and producing hydrocarbons from section608C creates fluid injectivity in the section. After fluid injectivityhas been created in section 608C, a fluid such as a drive fluid (forexample, steam, water, or hydrocarbons) and/or an oxidizing fluid (forexample, air, oxygen, enriched air, or other oxidants) may be injectedinto the section. The fluid may be injected through heaters 412, aproduction well, and/or an injection well located in section 608C. Insome embodiments, heaters 412 continue to provide heat while the fluidis being injected. In other embodiments, heaters 412 may be turned downor off before or during fluid injection.

In some embodiments, providing oxidizing fluid such as air to section608C causes oxidation of hydrocarbons in the section. For example, cokedhydrocarbons and/or heated hydrocarbons in section 608C may oxidize ifthe temperature of the hydrocarbons is above an oxidation ignitiontemperature. In some embodiments, treatment of section 608C with theheaters creates coked hydrocarbons with substantially uniform porosityand/or substantially uniform injectivity so that heating of the sectionis controllable when oxidizing fluid is introduced to the section. Theoxidation of hydrocarbons in section 608C will maintain the averagetemperature of the section or increase the average temperature of thesection to higher temperatures (for example, about 400° C. or above).

In some embodiments, injection of the oxidizing fluid is used to heatsection 608C and a second fluid is introduced into the formation afteror with the oxidizing fluid to create drive fluids in the section.During injection of oxidant, excess oxidant and/or oxidation productsmay be removed from section 608C through one or more production wells.After the formation is raised to a desired temperature, a second fluidmay be introduced into section 608C to react with coke and/orhydrocarbons and generate drive fluid (for example, synthesis gas). Insome embodiments, the second fluid includes water and/or steam.Reactions of the second fluid with carbon in the formation may beendothermic reactions that cool the formation. In some embodiments,oxidizing fluid is added with the second fluid so that some heating ofsection 608C occurs simultaneous with the endothermic reactions. In someembodiments, section 608C may be treated in alternating steps of addingoxidant to heat the formation, and then adding second fluid to generatedrive fluids.

The generated drive fluids in section 608C may include steam, carbondioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, and/or pyrolyzedhydrocarbons. The high temperature in section 608C and the generation ofdrive fluid in the section may increase the pressure of the section sothe drive fluids move out of the section into adjacent sections. Theincreased temperature of section 608C may also provide heat to section608B through conductive heat transfer and/or convective heat transferfrom fluid flow (for example, hydrocarbons and/or drive fluid) tosection 608B.

In some embodiments, hydrocarbons (for example, hydrocarbons producedfrom section 608C) are provided as a portion of the drive fluid. Theinjected hydrocarbons may include at least some pyrolyzed hydrocarbonssuch as pyrolyzed hydrocarbons produced from section 608C. In someembodiments, steam or water are provided as a portion of the drivefluid. Steam or water in the drive fluid may be used to controltemperatures in the formation. For example, steam or water may be usedto keep temperatures lower in the formation. In some embodiments, waterinjected as the drive fluid is turned into steam in the formation due tothe higher temperatures in the formation. The conversion of water tosteam may be used to reduce temperatures or maintain lower temperaturesin the formation.

Fluids injected in section 608C may flow towards section 608B, as shownby the arrows in FIG. 126. Fluid movement through the formationtransfers heat convectively through hydrocarbon layer 388 into sections608B and/or 608A. In addition, some heat may transfer conductivelythrough the hydrocarbon layer between the sections.

Low level heating of section 608B mobilizes hydrocarbons in the section.The mobilized hydrocarbons in section 608B may be moved by the injectedfluid through the section towards section 608A, as shown by the arrowsin FIG. 126. Thus, the injected fluid is pushing hydrocarbons fromsection 608C through section 608B to section 608A. Mobilizedhydrocarbons may be upgraded in section 608A due to the highertemperatures in the section. Pyrolyzed hydrocarbons that move intosection 608A may also be further upgraded in the section. The upgradedhydrocarbons may be produced through production wells located in section608A.

In certain embodiments, at least some hydrocarbons in section 608B aremobilized and drained from the section prior to injecting the fluid intothe formation. Some formations may have high oil saturation (forexample, the Grosmont formation has high oil saturation). The high oilsaturation corresponds to low gas permeability in the formation that mayinhibit fluid flow through the formation. Thus, mobilizing and draining(removing) some oil (hydrocarbons) from the formation may create gaspermeability for the injected fluids.

Fluids in hydrocarbon layer 388 may preferentially move horizontallywithin the hydrocarbon layer from the point of injection because tarsands tend to have a larger horizontal permeability than verticalpermeability. The higher horizontal permeability allows the injectedfluid to move hydrocarbons between sections preferentially versus fluidsdraining vertically due to gravity in the formation. Providingsufficient fluid pressure with the injected fluid may ensure that fluidsare moved to section 608A for upgrading and/or production.

In certain embodiments, section 608B has a larger volume than section608A and/or section 608C. Section 608B may be larger in volume than theother sections so that more hydrocarbons are produced for less energyinput into the formation. Because less heat is provided to section 608B(the section is heated to lower temperatures), having a larger volume insection 608B reduces the total energy input to the formation per unitvolume. The desired volume of section 608B may depend on factors suchas, but not limited to, viscosity, oil saturation, and permeability. Inaddition, the degree of coking is much less in section 608B due to thelower temperature so less hydrocarbons are coked in the formation whensection 608B has a larger volume. In some embodiments, the lower degreeof heating in section 608B allows for cheaper capital costs as lowertemperature materials (cheaper materials) may be used for heaters usedin section 608B.

Certain types of formations have low initial matrix permeabilities andcontain formation fluid having high initial viscosities at initial orambient condition that inhibit these formations from being easilytreated using conventional steam drive processes such as SAGD or CSS.For example, carbonate formations (such as the Grosmont reservoir inAlberta, Canada) have low matrix permeabilities and contain formationfluid with high viscosities that make these formations unsuitable forconventional steam drive processes. Carbonate formations may also behighly heterogenous (for example, have highly different vertical andhorizontal permeabilities), which makes it difficult to control flow offluids (such as steam) through the formation. In addition, somecarbonate formations are relatively shallow formations with lowoverburden fracture pressures that inhibit the use of high pressuresteam injection because of the need to avoid breaking or fracturing theoverburden.

In certain embodiments, formations with the above properties (such asthe Grosmont reservoir or other carbonate formations) are treated usinga combination of heating from heaters and steam drive processes. FIG.127 depicts an embodiment for treating a formation with heaters incombination with one or more steam drive processes. Heater 412A islocated in hydrocarbon containing layer 388 between injection well 602and production well 206. Injection well 602 and production well 206 maybe used to inject steam and produce hydrocarbons, respectively, in asteam drive process, such as a SAGD (steam assisted gravity drainage)process. In certain embodiments, heater 412A is located substantiallyhorizontally in layer 388. In some embodiments, injection well 602 andproduction well 206 are located substantially horizontally in layer 388.

In certain embodiments, heater 412A is located approximately verticallyequidistant between injection well 602 and production well 206 (theheater is at or near the midpoint between the injection well and theproduction well). Heater 412A may provide heat to a portion of layer 388surrounding the heater and proximate injection well 602 and productionwell 206. In some embodiments, heater 412A is an electric heater such asan insulated conductor heater or a conductor-in-conduit heater. Incertain embodiments, heat provided by heater 412A increases the steaminjectivity in the portion surrounding the heater. In certainembodiments, heater 412A provides heat at high heat injection rates suchas those used for the in situ heat treatment process (for example, heatinjection rates of at least about 1000 W/m).

As shown in FIG. 127, in certain embodiments, heater 412B is locatedabove injection/production well 610. In certain embodiments, heater 412Bis located substantially horizontally in layer 388.

In certain embodiments, injection/production well 610 is at leastpartially offset from heater 412B. Injection/production well 610 may beused to inject steam and produce hydrocarbons in a cyclic steam driveprocess, such as a CSS (cyclic steam injection) process. Heater 412B mayprovide heat to a portion of layer 388 surrounding the heater andproximate injection/production well 610. In some embodiments, heater412B is an electric heater such as an insulated conductor heater or aconductor-in-conduit heater. In certain embodiments, heat provided byheater 412B increases the steam injectivity in the portion surroundingthe heater. In certain embodiments, heater 412B provides heat at highheat injection rates such as those used for the in situ heat treatmentprocess (for example, heat injection rates of at least about 1000 W/m).

In certain embodiments, layer 388 has different initial vertical andhorizontal matrix permeabilities (the initial matrix permeability isheterogenous). In one embodiment, the initial vertical matrixpermeability in layer 388 is at most about 300 millidarcy and theinitial horizontal matrix permeability is at most about 1 darcy. In somecarbonate formations, the initial vertical matrix permeability is lessthan the initial horizontal matrix permeability such as, for example, inthe Grosmont reservoir in Alberta, Canada. The initial vertical andinitial horizontal matrix permeabilities may vary depending on thelocation in the formation and/or the type of formation. In oneembodiment, layer 388 includes formation fluid (for example,hydrocarbons) having an initial viscosity of at least about 1×10⁶centipoise (cp). The initial viscosity may vary depending on thelocation or depth of the fluid in the formation.

Typically, these initial permeabilities and initial viscosities are notfavorable for steam injection into layer 388 because the steam injectionpressure needed to get steam to move hydrocarbons through the formationis above the fracture pressure of overburden 400. Staying below theoverburden fracture pressure may be especially difficult for shallowerformations such as the Grosmont reservoir because the overburdenfracture pressure is relatively small in such shallower formations. Incertain embodiments, heater 412A and/or heater 412B are used to provideheat to layer 388 to reduce the viscosity of formation fluid in theportion surrounding the heater such that steam injected into the layerat pressures below the overburden fracture pressure can movehydrocarbons in the layer. Thus, providing heat to the layer increasesthe steam injectivity in the layer.

In certain embodiments, a selected amount of heat, or selected amount ofheating time, is provided from heater 412A and/or heater 412B to reducethe viscosity of the formation fluid in layer 388 before steam injectionthrough injection well 602 or injection/production well 610 begins. Insome embodiments, a simulation of reservoir conditions is used to assessor determine the selected amount of heat, or heating time, needed beforesteam injection into layer 388. For example, the selected amount ofheating time for heater 412A may be about 1 year for layer 388 to havemobilities or viscosities suitable for steam injection (sufficient steaminjectivity is created in the layer) through injection well 602. Theselected amount of heating time for heater 412B may be about 1 year forlayer 388 to have mobilities or viscosities suitable for steam injection(sufficient steam injectivity is created in the layer) throughinjection/production well 610.

In certain embodiments, heater 412A is turned off before steam injectionbegins. In other embodiments, heater 412A is turned off after steaminjection begins. In some embodiments, heater 412A is turned off aselected amount of time after steam injection begins. The time theheater is turned off may be selected to provide, for example, desiredproperties in the hydrocarbons produced from the formation.

In certain embodiments, heater 412B remains on for a selected amount oftime after steam injection/hydrocarbon production throughinjection/production well 610 begins. Heater 412B may remain on tomaintain steam injectivity in the portion surrounding the heater andinjection/production well 610. In some embodiments, heat provided fromheater 412B increases the size of the portion with increased steaminjectivity. After a period of time, heat provided from heater 412B maycreate steam injection interconnectivity between injection/productionwell 610 and production well 206. After interconnectivity betweeninjection/production well 610 and production well 206 is achieved,heater 412B may be turned off.

Interconnectivity between injection/production well 610 and productionwell 206 allows steam injection from the injection/production well tomove hydrocarbons to the production well. This hydrocarbon movement mayincrease the efficiency of steam injection and hydrocarbon productionfrom the layer. The interconnectivity may also allow less injectionwells and/or production wells to be used in treating the layer.

In certain embodiments, heating from heater 412A and/or heater 412B iscontrolled and/or turned off at a time to inhibit coke formation in thelayer. Simulation of reservoir conditions may be used to determinewhen/if the onset of coking may occur in the layer. Additionally, steaminjection into the formation may assist in inhibiting coke formation inthe layer.

In certain embodiments, steam is injected through injection well 602 ata pressure below the pressure of steam injected throughinjection/production well 610 (for example, at least 0.5 MPa below thepressure of steam injected through the injection/production well). Incertain embodiments, steam is injected through injection well 602 and/orinjection/production well 610 at a pressure that is above the formationfracturing pressure but below the overburden fracture pressure.Injecting steam above the formation fracturing pressure may increase thepermeability and/or move steam or hydrocarbons through the formation athigher rates. Thus, injecting steam above the formation fracturingpressure may increase the rate of hydrocarbon production throughproduction well 206 and/or injection/production well 610. Injectingsteam below the overburden fracture pressure inhibits the steam fromfracturing the overburden and allowing formation fluids to escape to thesurface through the overburden (for example, maintains the integrity ofthe overburden).

In some embodiments, a pattern for treating a formation includes arepeating pattern of heaters 412A, 412B, injection well 602, productionwell 206, and injection/production well 610, as shown in FIG. 127. Thepattern may be repeated horizontally and/or vertically in the formation.Using the repeating pattern to treat the formation may reduce the numberof wells needed to treat the formation as compared to using typicalsteam drive processes or in situ heat treatment processes individually.In some embodiments, heaters 412A, 412B may be removed and reused inanother portion of the formation, or another formation, after theheaters are turned off. The heaters may be allowed to cool down beforebeing removed from the formation.

Using the embodiment depicted in FIG. 127 to treat the formation (forexample, the Grosmont reservoir) may increase oil production and/ordecrease the amount of steam needed for oil production as compared tousing the SAGD process only. FIG. 128 depicts a comparison treating theformation using the embodiment depicted in FIG. 127 and treating theformation using the SAGD process. Cumulative oil production, cumulativesteam-oil ratio, and top pressure for the formation are compared usingthe two techniques. Plot 612 depicts cumulative oil production for theembodiment depicted in FIG. 127. Plot 614 depicts cumulative oilproduction for the SAGD process. Plot 616 depicts cumulative steam-oilratio for the embodiment depicted in FIG. 127. Plot 618 depictscumulative steam-oil ratio for the SAGD process. Plot 620 depicts toppressure for the embodiment depicted in FIG. 127. Plot 622 depicts toppressure for the SAGD process. As shown in FIG. 128, cumulative oilproduction is significantly increased for the embodiment depicted inFIG. 127 while the steam-oil ratio is slightly decreased and the toppressure is substantially the same. Thus, the embodiment depicted inFIG. 127 is more efficient in producing oil than the SAGD process.

In some embodiments, karsted formations or karsted layers in formationshave vugs in one or more layers of the formations. The vugs may befilled with viscous fluids such as bitumen or heavy oil. In someembodiments, the karsted layers have a porosity of at least about 20porosity units, at least about 30 porosity units, or at least about 35porosity units. The karsted formation may have a porosity of at mostabout 15 porosity units, at most about 10 porosity units, or at mostabout 5 porosity units. Vugs filled with viscous fluids may inhibitsteam or other fluids from being injected into the formation or thelayers. In certain embodiments, the karsted formation or karsted layersof the formation are treated using the in situ heat treatment process.

Heating of these formations or layers may decrease the viscosity of theviscous fluids in the vugs and allow the fluids to drain (for example,mobilize the fluids). Formations with karsted layers may have sufficientpermeability so that when the viscosity of fluids (hydrocarbons) in theformation is reduced, the fluids drain and/or move through the formationrelatively easily (for example, without a need for creating higherpermeability in the formation).

In some embodiments, the relative amount (the degree) of karst in theformation is assessed using techniques known in the art (for example, 3Dseismic imaging of the formation). The assessment may give a profile ofthe formation showing layers or portions with varying amounts of karstin the formation. In certain embodiments, more heat is provided toselected karsted portions of the formation than other karsted portionsof the formation. In some embodiments, selective amounts of heat areprovided to portions of the formation as a function of the degree ofkarst in the portions. Amounts of heat may be provided by varying thenumber and/or density of heaters in the portions with varying degrees ofkarst.

In certain embodiments, the hydrocarbon fluids in karsted portions havehigher viscosities than hydrocarbons in other non-karsted portions ofthe formation. Thus, more heat may be provided to the karsted portionsto reduce the viscosity of the hydrocarbons in the karsted portions.

In certain embodiments, only the karsted layers of the formation aretreated using the in situ heat treatment process. Other non-karstedlayers of the formation may be used as seals for the in situ heattreatment process. For example, karsted layers with different quantitiesof hydrocarbons in the layers may be treated while other layers are usedas natural seals for the treatment process. In some embodiments, karstedlayers with low quantities of hydrocarbons as compared to the otherkarsted and/or non-karsted layers are used as seals for the treatmentprocess. The quantity of hydrocarbons in the Karsted layer may bedetermined using logging methods and/or Dean Stark distillation methods.The quantity of hydrocarbons may be reported as a volume percent ofhydrocarbons per volume percent of rock, or as volume of hydrocarbonsper mass of rock.

In some embodiments, karsted layers with fewer hydrocarbons are treatedalong with karsted layers with more hydrocarbons. In some embodiments,karsted layers with fewer hydrocarbons are above and below a karstedlayer with more hydrocarbons (the middle karsted layer). Less heat maybe provided to the upper and lower karsted layers than the middlekarsted layer. Less heat may be provided in the upper and lower karstedlayers by having greater heat spacing and/or less heaters in the upperand lower karsted layers as compared to the middle karsted layer. Insome embodiments, less heating of the upper and lower karsted layersincludes heating the layers to mobilization and/or visbreakingtemperatures, but not to pyrolysis temperatures. In some embodiments,the upper and/or lower karsted layers are heated with heaters and theresidual heat from the upper and/or lower layers transfers to the middlelayer.

One or more production wells may be located in the middle karsted layer.Mobilized and/or visbroken hydrocarbons from the upper karsted layer maydrain to the production wells in the middle karsted layer. Heat providedto the lower karsted layer may create a thermal expansion drive and/or agas pressure drive in the lower karsted layer. The thermal expansionand/or gas pressure may drive fluids from the lower karsted layer to themiddle karsted layer. These fluids may be produced through theproduction wells in the middle karsted layer. Providing some heat to theupper and lower karsted layers may increase the total recovery of fluidsfrom the formation by, for example, 25% or more.

In some embodiments, the karsted layers with fewer hydrocarbons arefurther heated to pyrolysis temperatures after production from thekarsted layer with more hydrocarbons is completed or almost completed.The karsted layers with fewer hydrocarbons may also be further treatedby producing fluids through production wells located in the layers.

In some embodiments, a drive process, a solvent injection process and/ora pressurizing fluid process is used after the in situ heat treatment ofthe karsted formation or karsted layers. A drive process may includeinjection of a drive fluid such as steam. A drive process includes, butis not limited to, a steam injection process such as cyclic steaminjection, a steam assisted gravity drainage process (SAGD), and a vaporsolvent and SAGD process. A drive process may drive fluids from oneportion of the formation towards a production well.

A solvent injection process may include injection of a solvating fluid.A solvating fluid includes, but is not limited to, water, emulsifiedwater, hydrocarbons, surfactants, alkaline water solutions (for example,sodium carbonate solutions), caustic, polymers, carbon disulfide, carbondioxide, or mixtures thereof. The solvation fluid may mix with, solvateand/or dilute the hydrocarbons to form a mixture of condensablehydrocarbons and solvation fluids. The mixture may have a reducedviscosity as compared to the initial viscosity of the fluids in theformation. The mixture may flow and/or be mobilized towards productionwells in the formation.

A pressurizing process may include moving hydrocarbons in the formationby injection of a pressurized fluid. The pressurizing fluid may include,but is not limited to, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, steam, methane, and/ormixtures thereof.

In some embodiments, the drive process (for example, the steam injectionprocess) is used to mobilize fluids before the in situ heat treatmentprocess. Steam injection may be used to get hydrocarbons (oil) away fromrock or other strata in the formation. The steam injection may mobilizethe hydrocarbons without significantly heating the rock.

In some embodiments, fluid injected in the formation (for example, steamand/or carbon dioxide) may absorb heat from the formation and cool theformation depending on the pressure in the formation and the temperatureof the injected fluid. In some embodiments, the injected fluid is usedto recover heat from the formation. The recovered heat may be used insurface processing fluids and/or to preheat other portions of theformation using the drive process.

In some embodiments, heaters are used to preheat the karsted formationor karsted layers to create injectivity in the formation. In situ heattreatment of karsted formations and/or karsted layers may allow fordrive fluid injection, solvent injection and/or pressurizing fluidinjection where it was previously unfavorable or unmanageable.Typically, karsted formations were unfavorable for drive processesbecause channeling of the fluid injected in the formation inhibitedpressure build-up in the formation. In situ heat treatment of karstedformations may allow for injection of a drive fluid, a solvent and/or apressurizing fluid by reducing the viscosity of hydrocarbons in theformation and allowing pressure to build in the formations withoutsignificant bypass of the fluid through channels in the formations. Forexample, heating a section of the formation using in situ heat treatmentmay heat and mobilize heavy hydrocarbons (bitumen) by reducing theviscosity of the heavy hydrocarbons in the karsted layer. Some of theheated less viscous heavy hydrocarbons may flow from the karsted layerinto other portions of the formation that are cooler than the heatedkarsted portion. The heated less viscous heavy hydrocarbons may flowthrough channels and/or fractures. The heated heavy hydrocarbons maycool and solidify in the channels, thus creating a temporary seal forthe drive fluid, solvent, and/or pressurizing fluid.

In certain embodiments, the karsted formation or karsted layers areheated to temperatures below the decomposition temperature of mineralsin the formation (for example, rock minerals such as dolomite and/orclay minerals such as kaolinite, illite, or smectite). In someembodiments, the karsted formation or karsted layers are heated totemperatures of at most 400° C., at most 450° C., or at most 500° C.(for example, to a temperature below a dolomite decompositiontemperature at formation pressure). In some embodiments, the karstedformation or karsted layers are heated to temperatures below adecomposition temperature of clay minerals (such as kaolinite) atformation pressure.

In some embodiments, heat is preferentially provided to portions of theformation with low weight percentages of clay minerals (for example,kaolinite) as compared to the content of clay in other portions of theformation. For example, more heat may be provided to portions of theformation with at most 1% by weight clay minerals, at most 2% by weightclay minerals, or at most 3% by weight clay minerals than portions ofthe formation with higher weight percentages of clay minerals. In someembodiments, the rock and/or clay mineral distribution is assessed inthe formation prior to designing a heater pattern and installing theheaters. The heaters may be arranged to preferentially provide heat tothe portions of the formation that have been assessed to have lowerweight percentages of clay minerals as compared to other portions of theformation. In certain embodiments, the heaters are placed substantiallyhorizontally in layers with low weight percentages of clay minerals.

Providing heat to portions of the formation with low weight percentagesof clay minerals may minimize changes in the chemical structure of theclays. For example, heating clays to high temperatures may drive waterfrom the clays and change the structure of the clays. The change instructure of the clay may adversely affect the porosity and/orpermeability of the formation. If the clays are heated in the presenceof air, the clays may oxidize and the porosity and/or permeability ofthe formation may be adversely affected. Portions of the formation witha high weight percentage of clay minerals may be inhibited from reachingtemperatures above temperatures that effect the chemical composition ofthe clay minerals at formation pressures. For example, portions of theformation with large amounts of kaolinite relative to other portions ofthe formation may be inhibited from reaching temperatures above 240° C.In some embodiments, portions of the formation with a high quantity ofclay minerals relative to other portions of the formation may beinhibited from reaching temperatures above 200° C., above 220° C., above240° C., or above 300° C.

In some embodiments, karsted formations may include water. Minerals (forexample, carbonate minerals) in the formation may at least partiallydissociate in the water to form carbonic acid. The concentration ofcarbonic acid in the water may be sufficient to make the water acidic.At pressure greater than ambient formation pressures, dissolution ofminerals in the water may be enhanced, thus formation of acidic water isenhanced. Acidic water may react with other minerals in the formationsuch as dolomite (MgCa(CO₃)₂) and increase the solubility of theminerals. Water at lower pressures, or non-acidic water, may notsolubilize the minerals in the formation. Dissolution of the minerals inthe formation may form fractures in the formation. Thus, controlling thepressure and/or the acidity of water in the formation may control thesolubilization of minerals in the formation. In some embodiments, otherinorganic acids in the formation enhance the solubilization of mineralssuch as dolomite.

In some embodiments, the karsted formation or karsted layers are heatedto temperatures above the decomposition temperature of minerals in theformation. At temperatures above the minerals decomposition temperature,the minerals may decompose to produce carbon dioxide or other products.The decomposition of the minerals and the carbon dioxide production maycreate permeability in the formation and mobilize viscous fluids in theformation. In some embodiments, the produced carbon dioxide ismaintained in the formation to generate a gas cap in the formation. Thecarbon dioxide may be allowed to rise to the upper portions of thekarsted layers to generate the gas cap.

In some embodiments, a formation containing dolomite and hydrocarbons istreated using an in situ heat treatment process. Hydrocarbons may bemobilized and produced from the formation. During treating of aformation containing dolomite, the dolomite may decompose to formmagnesium oxide, carbon dioxide, calcium oxide and water(MgCO₃.CaCO₃)→CaCO₃+MgO+CO₂). Calcium carbonate may further decompose tocalcium oxide and carbon dioxide (CaO and CO₂). During treating, thedolomite may decompose and form intermediate compounds. Upon heating,the intermediate compounds may decompose to form additional magnesiumoxide, carbon dioxide and water.

In certain embodiments, during or after treating a formation with an insitu heat treatment process, carbon dioxide and/or steam is introducedinto the formation. The carbon dioxide and/or steam may be introduced athigh pressures. The carbon dioxide and/or steam may react with magnesiumcompounds and calcium compounds in the formation to generate dolomite orother mineral compounds in situ. For example, magnesium carbonatecompounds and/or calcium carbonate compounds may be formed in additionto dolomite. Formation conditions may be controlled so that the carbondioxide, water and magnesium oxide react to form dolomite and/or othermineral compounds. The generated minerals may solidify and form abarrier to a flow of formation fluid into or out of the formation. Thegeneration of dolomite and/or other mineral compounds may allow foreconomical treatment and/or disposal of carbon dioxide and waterproduced during treatment of a formation. In some embodiments, carbondioxide produced from formations may be stored and injected in theformation with steam at high pressure. In some embodiments, the steamincludes calcium compounds and/or magnesium compounds.

In some embodiments, the production front of the drive process followsbehind the heat front of the in situ heat treatment process. In someembodiments, areas behind the production front are further heated toproduce more fluids from the formation. Further heating behind theproduction front may also maintain the gas cap behind the productionfront and/or maintain quality in the production front of the driveprocess.

In certain embodiments, the drive process is used before the in situheat treatment of the formation. In some embodiments, the drive processis used to mobilize fluids in a first section of the formation. Themobilized fluids may then be pushed into a second section by heating thefirst section with heaters. Fluids may be produced from the secondsection. In some embodiments, the fluids in the second section arepyrolyzed and/or upgraded using the heaters.

In formations with low permeabilities, the drive process may be used tocreate a “gas cushion” or pressure sink before the in situ heattreatment process. The gas cushion may inhibit pressures from increasingquickly to fracture pressure during the in situ heat treatment process.The gas cushion may provide a path for gases to escape or travel duringearly stages of heating during the in situ heat treatment process.

In some embodiments, the drive process (for example, the steam injectionprocess) is used to mobilize fluids before the in situ heat treatmentprocess. Steam injection may be used to get hydrocarbons (oil) away fromrock or other strata in the formation. The steam injection may mobilizethe oil without significantly heating the rock.

In some embodiments, injection of a fluid (for example, steam or carbondioxide) may consume heat in the formation and cool the formationdepending on the pressure in the formation. In some embodiments, theinjected fluid is used to recover heat from the formation. The recoveredheat may be used in surface processing fluids and/or to preheat otherportions of the formation using the drive process.

FIG. 129 depicts an embodiment for heating and producing from theformation with the temperature limited heater in a production wellbore.Production conduit 624 is located in wellbore 490. In certainembodiments, a portion of wellbore 490 is located substantiallyhorizontally in formation 492. In some embodiments, the wellbore islocated substantially vertically in the formation. In an embodiment, atleast a portion of wellbore 490 is an open wellbore (an uncasedwellbore). In some embodiments, the wellbore has a casing or liner withperforations or openings to allow fluid to flow into the wellbore.

Conduit 624 may be made from carbon steel or more corrosion resistantmaterials such as stainless steel. Conduit 624 may include apparatus andmechanisms for gas lifting or pumping produced oil to the surface. Forexample, conduit 624 includes gas lift valves used in a gas liftprocess. Examples of gas lift control systems and valves are disclosedin U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,715,550 to Vinegar et al. and 7,259,688 to Hirsch etal., and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2002-0036085 to Bass etal., each of which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forthherein. Conduit 624 may include one or more openings (perforations) toallow fluid to flow into the production conduit. In certain embodiments,the openings in conduit 624 are in a portion of the conduit that remainsbelow the liquid level in wellbore 490. For example, the openings are ina horizontal portion of conduit 624.

Heater 412 is located in conduit 624. In some embodiments, heater 412 islocated outside conduit 624, as shown in FIG. 130. The heater locatedoutside the production conduit may be coupled (strapped) to theproduction conduit. In some embodiments, more than one heater (forexample, two, three, or four heaters) are placed about conduit 624. Theuse of more than one heater may reduce bowing or flexing of theproduction conduit caused by heating on only one side of the productionconduit. In an embodiment, heater 412 is a temperature limited heater.Heater 412 provides heat to reduce the viscosity of fluid (such as oilor hydrocarbons) in and near wellbore 490. In certain embodiments,heater 412 raises the temperature of the fluid in wellbore 490 up to atemperature of 250° C. or less (for example, 225° C., 200° C., or 150°C.). Heater 412 may be at higher temperatures (for example, 275° C.,300° C., or 325° C.) because the heater provides heat to conduit 624 andthere is some temperature differential between the heater and theconduit. Thus, heat produced from the heater does not raise thetemperature of fluids in the wellbore above 250° C.

In certain embodiments, heater 412 includes ferromagnetic materials suchas Carpenter Temperature Compensator “32”, Alloy 42-6, Alloy 52, Invar36, or other iron-nickel or iron-nickel-chromium alloys. In certainembodiments, nickel or nickel-chromium alloys are used in heater 412. Insome embodiments, heater 412 includes a composite conductor with a morehighly conductive material such as copper on the inside of the heater toimprove the turndown ratio of the heater. Heat from heater 412 heatsfluids in or near wellbore 490 to reduce the viscosity of the fluids andincrease a production rate through conduit 624.

In certain embodiments, portions of heater 412 above the liquid level inwellbore 490 (such as the vertical portion of the wellbore depicted inFIGS. 129 and 130) have a lower maximum temperature than portions of theheater located below the liquid level. For example, portions of heater412 above the liquid level in wellbore 490 may have a maximumtemperature of 100° C. while portions of the heater located below theliquid level have a maximum temperature of 250° C. In certainembodiments, such a heater includes two or more ferromagnetic sectionswith different Curie temperatures and/or phase transformationtemperature ranges to achieve the desired heating pattern. Providingless heat to portions of wellbore 490 above the liquid level and closerto the surface may save energy.

In certain embodiments, heater 412 is electrically isolated on theoutside surface of the heater and allowed to move freely in conduit 624.In some embodiments, electrically insulating centralizers are placed onthe outside of heater 412 to maintain a gap between conduit 624 and theheater.

In some embodiments, heater 412 is cycled (turned on and off) so thatfluids produced through conduit 624 are not overheated. In anembodiment, heater 412 is turned on for a specified amount of time untila temperature of fluids in or near wellbore 490 reaches a desiredtemperature (for example, the maximum temperature of the heater). Duringthe heating time (for example, 10 days, 20 days, or 30 days), productionthrough conduit 624 may be stopped to allow fluids in the formation to“soak” and obtain a reduced viscosity. After heating is turned off orreduced, production through conduit 624 is started and fluids from theformation are produced without excess heat being provided to the fluids.During production, fluids in or near wellbore 490 will cool down withoutheat from heater 412 being provided. When the fluids reach a temperatureat which production significantly slows down, production is stopped andheater 412 is turned back on to reheat the fluids. This process may berepeated until a desired amount of production is reached. In someembodiments, some heat at a lower temperature is provided to maintain aflow of the produced fluids. For example, low temperature heat (forexample, 100° C., 125° C., or 150° C.) may be provided in the upperportions of wellbore 490 to keep fluids from cooling to a lowertemperature.

In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater positioned in awellbore heats steam that is provided to the wellbore. The heated steammay be introduced into a portion of the formation. In certainembodiments, the heated steam may be used as a heat transfer fluid toheat a portion of the formation. In some embodiments, the steam is usedto solution mine desired minerals from the formation. In someembodiments, the temperature limited heater positioned in the wellboreheats liquid water that is introduced into a portion of the formation.

In an embodiment, the temperature limited heater includes ferromagneticmaterial with a selected Curie temperature and/or a selected phasetransformation temperature range. The use of a temperature limitedheater may inhibit a temperature of the heater from increasing beyond amaximum selected temperature (for example, a temperature at or about theCurie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range).Limiting the temperature of the heater may inhibit potential burnout ofthe heater. The maximum selected temperature may be a temperatureselected to heat the steam to above or near 100% saturation conditions,superheated conditions, or supercritical conditions. Using a temperaturelimited heater to heat the steam may inhibit overheating of the steam inthe wellbore. Steam introduced into a formation may be used forsynthesis gas production, to heat the hydrocarbon containing formation,to carry chemicals into the formation, to extract chemicals or mineralsfrom the formation, and/or to control heating of the formation.

A portion of the formation where steam is introduced or that is heatedwith steam may be at significant depths below the surface (for example,greater than about 1000 m, about 2500 m, or about 5000 m below thesurface). If steam is heated at the surface of the formation andintroduced to the formation through a wellbore, a quality of the heatedsteam provided to the wellbore at the surface may have to be relativelyhigh to accommodate heat losses to the wellbore casing and/or theoverburden as the steam travels down the wellbore. Heating the steam inthe wellbore may allow the quality of the steam to be significantlyimproved before the steam is provided to the formation. A temperaturelimited heater positioned in a lower section of the overburden and/oradjacent to a target zone of the formation may be used to controllablyheat steam to improve the quality of the steam injected into theformation and/or inhibit condensation along the length of the heater. Incertain embodiments, the temperature limited heater improves the qualityof the steam injected and/or inhibits condensation in the wellbore forlong steam injection wellbores (especially for long horizontal steaminjection wellbores).

A temperature limited heater positioned in a wellbore may be used toheat the steam to above or near 100% saturation conditions orsuperheated conditions. In some embodiments, a temperature limitedheater may heat the steam so that the steam is above or nearsupercritical conditions. The static head of fluid above the temperaturelimited heater may facilitate producing 100% saturation, superheated,and/or supercritical conditions in the steam. Supercritical or nearsupercritical steam may be used to strip hydrocarbon material and/orother materials from the formation. In certain embodiments, steamintroduced into the formation may have a high density (for example, aspecific gravity of about 0.8 or above). Increasing the density of thesteam may improve the ability of the steam to strip hydrocarbon materialand/or other materials from the formation.

In some embodiments, the tar sands formation may be treated by the insitu heat treatment process to produce pyrolyzed product from theformation. A significant amount of carbon in the form of coke may remainin tar sands formation when production of pyrolysis product from theformation is complete. In some embodiments, the coke in the formationmay be utilized to produce heat and/or additional products from theheated coke containing portions of the formation.

In some embodiments, air, oxygen enriched air, and/or other oxidants maybe introduced into the treatment area that has been pyrolyzed to reactwith the coke in the treatment area. The temperature of the treatmentarea may be sufficiently hot to support burning of the coke withoutadditional energy input from heaters. The oxidation of the coke maysignificantly heat the portion of the formation. Some of the heat maytransfer to portions of the formation adjacent to the treatment area.The transferred heat may mobilize fluids in portions of the formationadjacent to the treatment area. The mobilized fluids may flow into andbe produced from production wells near the perimeter of the treatmentarea.

Gases produced from the formation heated by combusting coke in theformation may be at high temperature. The hot gases may be utilized inan energy recovery cycle (for example, a Kalina cycle or a Rankinecycle) to produce electricity.

The air, oxygen enriched air and/or other oxidants may be introducedinto the formation for a sufficiently long period of time to heat aportion of the treatment area to a desired temperature sufficient toallow for the production of synthesis gas of a desired composition. Thetemperature may be from 500° C. to about 1000° C. or higher. When thetemperature of the portion is at or near the desired temperature, asynthesis gas generating fluid, such as water, may be introduced intothe formation to result in the formation of synthesis gas. Synthesis gasproduced from the formation may be sent to a treatment facility and/orbe sent through a pipeline to a desired location. During introduction ofthe synthesis gas generating fluid, the introduction of air, oxygenenriched air, and/or other oxidants may be stopped, reduced, ormaintained. If the temperature of the formation reduces so that thesynthesis gas produced from the formation does not have the desiredcomposition, introduction of the syntheses gas generating fluid may bestopped or reduced, and the introduction of air, enriched air and/orother oxidants may be started or increased so that oxidation of coke inthe formation reheats portions of the treatment area. The introductionof oxidant to heat the formation and the introduction of synthesis gasgenerating fluid to produce synthesis gas may be cycled until all or asignificant portion of the treatment area is treated.

In certain embodiments, a subsurface formation is treated in stages. Thetreatment may be initiated with electrical heating with further heatinggenerated from oxidation of hydrocarbons and hot gas production from theformation. Hydrocarbons (for example, heavy hydrocarbons and/or bitumen)may be moved from one portion of the formation to another where thehydrocarbons are produced from the formation. By using a combination ofheaters, oxidizing fluid and/or drive fluid, the overall time necessaryto initiate production from a formation may be decreased relative totimes necessary to initiate production using heaters and/or driveprocesses alone. By controlling a rate of oxidizing fluid injectionand/or drive fluid injection in conjunction with heating with heaters, arelatively uniform temperature distribution may be obtained in sections(portions) of the subsurface formation.

A method for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation with heaters incombination with an oxidizing fluid may include providing heat to afirst portion of the formation from a plurality of heaters located inheater wells in the first portion. Fluids may be produced through one ormore production wells in a second portion of the formation that issubstantially adjacent to the first portion. The heat provided to thefirst portion may be reduced or turned off after a selected time. Anoxidizing fluid may be provided through one or more of the heater wellsin the first portion. Heat may be provided to the first portion and thesecond portion through oxidation of at least some hydrocarbons in thefirst portion. Fluids may be produced through at least one of theproduction wells in the second portion. The fluids may include at leastsome oxidized hydrocarbons. Transportation fuel may be produced from thehydrocarbons produced from the first and/or second of the formation.

FIG. 131 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a first stage oftreating the tar sands formation with electrical heaters. Hydrocarbonlayer 388 may be separated into section 608A and section 608B. Heaters412 may be located in section 608A. Production wells 206 may be locatedin section 608B. In some embodiments, production wells 206 extend intosection 608A.

Heaters 412 may be used to heat and treat portions of section 608Athrough conductive, convective, and/or radiative heat transfer. Forexample, heaters 412 may mobilize, visbreak, and/or pyrolyzehydrocarbons in section 608A. Production wells 206 may be used toproduce mobilized, visbroken, and/or pyrolyzed hydrocarbons from section608A.

FIG. 132 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a second stage oftreating the tar sands formation with fluid injection and oxidation.After at least some hydrocarbons from section 608A have been produced(for example, a majority of hydrocarbons in the section or almost allproducible hydrocarbons in the section), the heater wells in section608A may be converted to injection wells 602. In some embodiments, theheater wells are open wellbores below the overburden. In someembodiments, the heater wells are initially installed into wellboresthat include perforated casings. In some embodiments, the heater wellsare perforated using perforation guns after heating from the heaterwells is completed.

Injection wells 602 may be used to inject an oxidizing fluid (forexample, air, oxygen, enriched air, or other oxidants) into theformation. In some embodiments, the oxidation includes liquid waterand/or steam. The amount of oxidizing fluid may be controlled to adjustsubsurface combustion patterns. In some embodiments, carbon dioxide orother fluids are injected into the formation to controlheating/production in the formation. The oxidizing fluid may oxidize(combust) or otherwise react with hydrocarbons remaining in theformation (for example, coke). Water in the oxidizing fluid may reactwith coke and/or hydrocarbons in the hot formation to produce syngas inthe formation. Production wells 206 in section 608B may be converted toheater/gas production wells 626. Heater/gas production wells 626 may beused to produce oxidation gases and/or syngas products from theformation. Producing the hot oxidation gases and/or syngas throughheater/gas production wells 626 in section 608B may heat the section tohigher temperatures so that hydrocarbons in the section are mobilized,visbroken, and/or pyrolyzed in the section. Production wells 206 insection 608C may be used to produce mobilized, visbroken, and/orpyrolyzed hydrocarbons from section 608B.

In certain embodiments, the pressure of the injected fluids and thepressure in formation are controlled to control the heating in theformation. The pressure in the formation may be controlled bycontrolling the production rate of fluids from the formation (forexample, the production rate of oxidation gases and/or syngas productsfrom heater/gas production wells 626). Heating in the formation may becontrolled so that there is enough hydrocarbon volume in the formationto maintain the oxidation reactions in the formation. Heating may becontrolled so that the formation near the injection wells is at atemperature that will generate desired synthesis gas if a synthesis gasgenerating fluid such as water is included in the oxidation fluid.Heating in the formation may also be controlled so that enough heat isgenerated to conductively heat the formation to mobilize, visbreak,and/or pyrolyze hydrocarbons in adjacent sections of the formation.

The process of injecting oxidizing fluid and/or water in one section,producing oxidation gases and/or syngas products in an adjacent sectionto heat the adjacent section, and producing upgraded hydrocarbons(mobilized, visbroken, and/or pyrolyzed hydrocarbons) from a subsequentsection may be continued in further sections of the tar sands formation.For example, FIG. 133 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a thirdstage of treating the tar sands formation with fluid injection andoxidation. The gas heater/producer wells in section 608B are convertedto injection wells 602 to inject air and/or water. The producer wells insection 608C are converted to production wells (for example, heater/gasproduction wells 626) to produce oxidation gases and/or syngas products.Production wells 206 are formed in section 608D to produce upgradedhydrocarbons.

In some embodiments, significant amounts of residue and/or coke remainin a subsurface formation after heating the formation with heaters andproducing formation fluids from the formation. In some embodiments,sections of the formation include heavy hydrocarbons such as bitumenthat are difficult to heat to mobilization temperatures adjacent tosections of the formation that are being treated using an in situ heattreatment process. Heating of heavy hydrocarbons may require high energyinput, a large number of heater wells and/or increase in capital costs(for example, materials for heater construction). It would beadvantageous to produce formation fluids from subsurface formations withlower energy costs, fewer heater wells and/or heater cost with improvedproduct quality and/or recovery efficiency.

In some embodiments, a method for treating a subsurface formationincludes producing a at least a third hydrocarbons from a first portionby an in situ heat treatment process. An average temperature of thefirst portion is less than 350° C. An oxidizing fluid may be injected inthe first portion to cause the average temperature in the first portionto increase sufficiently to oxidize hydrocarbon in the first portion andto raise the average temperature in the first portion to greater than350° C. In some embodiments, the temperature of the first portion israised to an average temperature ranging from 350° C. to 700° C. A heavyhydrocarbon fluid that includes one or more condensable hydrocarbons maybe injected in the first portion to from a diluent and/or drive fluid.In some embodiments, a catalyst system is added to the first portion.

FIGS. 134, 135, and 136 depict side view representations of embodimentsof treating a subsurface formation in stages with heaters, oxidizingfluid, catalyst, and/or drive fluid. Hydrocarbon layer 388 may bedivided into three or more treatment sections. In certain embodiments,hydrocarbon layer 388 includes five treatment sections: section 608A,section 608B, section 608C, section 608D and section 608E. Sections 608Aand section 608C are separated by section 608B. Sections 608C andsection 608E are separated by section 608D. Section 608A through section608E may be horizontally displaced from each other in the formation. Insome embodiments, one side of section 608A is adjacent to an edge of thetreatment area of the formation or an untreated section of the formationis left on one side of section 608A before the same or a differentpattern is formed on the opposite side of the untreated section.

In certain embodiments, section 608A is heated to pyrolysis temperatureswith heaters 412. Section 608A may be heated to mobilize and/or pyrolyzehydrocarbons in the section. In some embodiments, section 608A is heatedto an average temperature of 250° C., 300° C., or up to 350° C. Themobilized and/or pyrolyzed hydrocarbons may be produced through one ormore production wells 206. Once at least a third, a substantial portion,or all of the hydrocarbons have been produced from section 608A, thetemperature in section 608A may be maintained at an average temperaturethat allows the section to be used as a reactor and/or reaction zone totreat formation fluid and/or hydrocarbons from surface facilities. Useof one or more heated portions of the formation to treat suchhydrocarbons may reduce or eliminate the need for surface facilitiesthat treat such fluids (for example, coking units and/or delayed cokingunits).

In certain embodiments, heating and producing hydrocarbons from sections608A creates fluid injectivity in the sections. After fluid injectivityhas been created in section 608A, an oxidizing fluid may be injectedinto the section. For example, oxidizing fluid may be injected insection 608A after at least a third or a majority of the hydrocarbonshave been produced from the section. The fluid may be injected throughheater wellbores, production wells 206, and/or injection wells locatedin section 608A. In some embodiments, heaters 412 continue to provideheat while the fluid is being injected. In certain embodiments, heaters412 may be turned down or off before or during fluid injection.

During injection of oxidant, excess oxidant and/or oxidation productsmay be removed from section 608A through one or more production wells206 and/or heater/gas production wells. In some embodiments, after theformation is raised to a desired temperature, a second fluid may beintroduced into section 608A. The second fluid may be water and/orsteam. Addition of the second fluid may cool the formation. For example,when the second fluid is steam and/or water, the reactions of the secondfluid with coke and/or hydrocarbons are endothermic and producesynthesis gas. In some embodiments, oxidizing fluid is added with thesecond fluid so that some heating of section 608A occurs simultaneouswith the endothermic reactions. In some embodiments, section 608A istreated in alternating steps of adding oxidant and second fluid to heatthe formation for selected periods of time.

In certain embodiments, the pressure of the injected fluids and thepressure section 608A are controlled to control the heating in theformation. The pressure in section 608A may be controlled by controllingthe production rate of fluids from the section (for example, theproduction rate of hydrocarbons, oxidation gases and/or syngasproducts). Heating in section 608A may be controlled so that sectionreaches a desired temperature (for example, temperatures of at least350° C., of at least about 400° C., or at least about 500° C., about700° C., or higher). Injection of the oxidizing fluid may allow portionsof the formation below the section heated by heaters to be heated, thusallowing heating of formation fluids in deeper and/or inaccessibleportions of the formation. The control of heat and pressure in thesection may improve efficiency and quality of products produced from theformation.

During heating and/or after heating of section 608A, heavy hydrocarbonswith low economic value and/or waste hydrocarbon streams from surfacefacilities may be injected in the section. Low economic valuehydrocarbons and/or waste hydrocarbon streams may include, but are notlimited to, hydrocarbons produced during surface mining operations,residue, bitumen and/or bottom extracts from bitumen mining. In someembodiments, hydrocarbons produced from section 608A or other sectionsof the formation may be introduced into section 608A. In someembodiments, one or more of the heater wells in section 608A areconverted to injection wells.

Heating of hydrocarbons and/or coke in section 608A may generate drivefluids. Generated drive fluids in section 608A may include air, steam,carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, pyrolyzedhydrocarbons and/or in situ diluent. In some embodiments, hydrocarbonfluids are introduced into section 608A prior to injecting an oxidizingfluid and/or the second fluid. Oxidation and/or thermal cracking ofintroduced hydrocarbon fluids may create the drive fluid.

In some embodiments, drive fluid may be injected into the formation. Theaddition of oxidizing fluid, steam, and/or water in the drive fluid maybe used to control temperatures in section 608A. For example, theaddition of hydrocarbons to section 608A may cool the averagetemperature in section 608A to a temperature below temperatures thatallow for cracking of the introduced hydrocarbons. Oxidizing fluid maybe injected to increase and/or maintain the average temperature between250° C. and 700° C. or between 350° C. and 600° C. Maintaining thetemperature between 250° C. and 700° C. may allow for the production ofhigh quality hydrocarbons from the low value hydrocarbons and/or wastestreams. Controlling the input of hydrocarbons, oxidizing fluid, and/ordrive fluid into section 608A may allow for the production ofcondensable hydrocarbons with a minimal amount non-condensable gases. Insome embodiments, controlling the input of hydrocarbons, oxidizingfluid, and/or drive fluid into section 608A may allow for the productionof large amounts of non-condensable hydrocarbons and/or hydrogen withminimal amounts of condensable hydrocarbons.

In some embodiments, a catalyst system is introduced to section 608Awhen the section is at a desired temperature (for example, a temperatureof at least 350° C., at least 400° C., or at least 500° C.). In someembodiments, the section is heated after and/or during introduction ofthe catalyst system. The catalyst system may be provided to theformation by injecting the catalyst system into one or more injectionwells and/or production wells in section 608A. In some embodiments, thecatalyst system is positioned in wellbores proximate the section of theformation to be treated. In some embodiments, the catalyst is introducedto one or more sections during in situ heat treatment of the sections.The catalyst may be provided to section 608A as a slurry and/or asolution in sufficient quantity to allow the catalyst to be dispersed inthe section. For example, the catalyst system may be dissolved in waterand/or slurried in an emulsion of water and hydrocarbons. Attemperatures of at least 100° C., at least 200° C., or at least 250° C.,vaporization of water from the solution allows the catalyst to bedispersed in the rock matrix of section 608A.

The catalyst system may include one or more catalysts. The catalysts maybe supported or unsupported catalysts. Catalysts include, but are notlimited to, alkali metal carbonates, alkali metal hydroxides, alkalimetal hydrides, alkali metal amides, alkali metal sulfides, alkali metalacetates, alkali metal oxalates, alkali metal formates, alkali metalpyruvates, alkaline-earth metal carbonates, alkaline-earth metalhydroxides, alkaline-earth metal hydrides, alkaline-earth metal amides,alkaline-earth metal sulfides, alkaline-earth metal acetates,alkaline-earth metal oxalates, alkaline-earth metal formates,alkaline-earth metal pyruvates, or commercially available fluidcatalytic cracking catalysts, dolomite, silicon-alumina catalyst fines,zeolites, zeolite catalyst fines any catalyst that promotes formation ofaromatic hydrocarbons, or mixtures thereof.

In some embodiments, fractions from surface facilities include catalystfines. Surface facilities may include catalytic cracking units and/orhydrotreating units. These fractions may be injected in section 608A toprovide a source of catalyst for the section. Injection of the fractionsin section 608A may provide an advantageous method for disposal and/orupgrading of the fractions as compared to conventional disposal methodsfor fractions containing catalyst fines.

After injecting catalyst in section 608A, the average temperature insection 608A may be increased or maintained in a range from about 250°C. to about 700° C., from about 300° C. to about 650° C., or from about350° C. to about 600° C. by injection of reaction fluids (for example,oxidizing fluid, steam, water and/or combinations thereof). In someembodiments, heaters 412 are used to raise or maintain the temperaturein section 608A in the desired range. In some embodiments, heaters 412and the introduction of reaction fluids into section 608A are used toraise or maintain the temperature in the desired range. Hydrocarbonfluids may be introduced in section 608A once the desired temperature isobtained. In some embodiments, the catalyst system is slurried with aportion of the hydrocarbons, and the slurry is introduced to section608A. In some embodiments, a portion of the hydrocarbon fluids areintroduced to section 608A prior to introduction of the catalyst system.The introduced hydrocarbon fluids may be hydrocarbons in formation fluidfrom an adjacent portion of the formation, and/or low valuehydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons may contact the catalyst system toproduce desirable hydrocarbons (for example, visbroken hydrocarbons,cracked hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, or mixtures thereof). Thedesired temperature in section 608A may be maintained by turning onheaters in the section and/or continuous injection of oxidizing fluid tocause exothermic reactions that heat the formation.

In some embodiments, hydrocarbons produced through thermal and/orcatalytic treatment in section 608A may be used as a diluent and/or asolvent in the section. The produced hydrocarbons may include aromatichydrocarbons. The aromatic enriched diluent may dilute or solubilize aportion of the heavy hydrocarbons in section 608A and/or other sectionsin the formation (for example, sections 608B and/or 608C) and form amixture. The mixture may be produced from the formation (for example,produced from sections 608A and/or 608C). In some embodiments, themixture is produced from section 608B. In some embodiments, the mixturedrains to a bottom portion of the section and solubilizes additionalhydrocarbons at the bottom of the section. Solubilized hydrocarbons maybe produced or mobilized from the formation. In some embodiments, fluidsproduced in section 608A (for example, diluent, desirable products,oxidized products, and/or solubilized hydrocarbons) may be pushedtowards section 608B as shown by the arrows in FIG. 134 by oxidizingfluid, drive fluid, and/or created drive fluid.

In some embodiments, the temperatures in section 608A and the generationof drive fluid in section 608A increases the pressure of section 608A sothe drive fluid pushes fluids through section 608B into section 608C.Hot fluids flowing from section 608A into section 608B may melt,solubilize, visbreak and/or crack fluids in section 608B sufficiently toallow the fluids to move to section 608C. In section 608C, the fluidsmay be upgraded and/or produced through production wells 206.

In some embodiments, a portion of the catalyst system from section 608Aenters section 608B and/or section 608C and contacts fluids in thesections. Contact of the catalyst with formation fluids in 608B and/orsection 608C may result in the production of hydrocarbons having a lowerAPI gravity than the mobilized fluids.

The fluid mixture formed from contact of hydrocarbons, formation fluidand/or mobilized fluids with the catalyst system may be produced fromthe formation. The liquid hydrocarbon portion of the fluid mixture mayhave an API gravity between 10° and 25°, between 12° and 23° or between15° and 20°. In some embodiments, the produced mixture has at most 0.25grams of aromatics per gram of total hydrocarbons. In some embodiments,the produced mixture includes some of the catalysts and/or usedcatalysts.

In some embodiments, contact of the hydrocarbon fluids with the catalystsystem produces coke in 608A. Oxidizing fluid may be introduced intosection 608A. The oxidizing fluid may react with the coke to generateheat that maintains the average temperature of section 608A in a desiredrange. For some time intervals, additional oxidizing fluid may be addedto section 608A to increase the oxidation reactions to regeneratecatalyst in the section. The reaction of the oxidizing fluid with thecoke may reduce the amount of coke and heat formation and/or catalyst totemperatures sufficient to remove impurities on the catalyst. Coke,nitrogen containing compounds, sulfur containing compounds, and/ormetals such as nickel and/or vanadium may be removed from the catalyst.Removing impurities from the catalyst in situ may enhance catalyst life.After catalyst regeneration, introduction of reaction fluids may beadjusted to allow section 608A to return to an average temperature inthe desired temperature range. The average temperature in section 608Amay the controlled to be in range from about 250° C. to about 700° C.Hydrocarbons may be introduced in section 608A to continue the cycle.Additional catalyst systems may be introduced into the formation asneeded.

A method for treating a subsurface formation in stages may include usingan in situ heat treatment process in combination with injection of anoxidizing fluid and/or drive fluid in one or more portions (sections) ofthe formation. In some embodiments, hydrocarbons are produced from afirst portion and/or a third portion by an in situ heat treatmentprocess. A second portion that separates the first and third portionsmay be heated with one or more heaters to an average temperature of atleast about 100° C. The heat provided to the first portion may bereduced or turned off after a selected time. Oxidizing fluid may beinjected in the first portion to oxidize hydrocarbons in the firstportion and raise the temperature of the first portion. A drive fluidand/or additional oxidizing fluid may be injected and/or created in thethird portion to cause at least some hydrocarbons to move from the thirdportion through the second portion to the first portion of thehydrocarbon layer. Injection of the oxidizing fluid in the first portionmay be reduced or discontinued and additional hydrocarbons and/or syngasmay be produced from the first portion of the formation. The additionalhydrocarbons and/or syngas may include at least some hydrocarbons fromthe second and third portions of the formation. Transportation fuel maybe produced from the hydrocarbons produced from the first, second and/orthird portions of the formation. In some embodiments, a catalyst systemis provided to the first portion and/or third portion.

In certain embodiments, sections 608A and 608C are heated at or near thesame time to similar temperatures (for example, pyrolysis temperatures)with heaters 412. Sections 608A and 608C may be heated to mobilizeand/or pyrolyze hydrocarbons in the sections. The mobilized and/orpyrolyzed hydrocarbons may be produced (for example, through one or moreproduction wells 206) from section 608A and/or section 608C. Section608B may be heated to lower temperatures (for example, mobilizationtemperatures) by heaters 412. Sections 608D and 608E may not be heated.Little or no production of hydrocarbons to the surface may take placethrough section 608B, section 608D and/or section 608E. For example,sections 608A and 608C may be heated to average temperatures of at leastabout 300° C. or at least about 330° C. while section 608B is heated toan average temperature of at least about 100° C., sections 608D and 608Eare not heated and no production wells are operated in section 608B,section 608D, and/or section 608E. In some embodiments, heat fromsection 608A and/or section 608C transfers to sections section 608Dand/or section 608E.

In some embodiments, heavy hydrocarbons in section 608B may be heated tomobilization temperatures and flow into sections 608A and 608C. Themobilized hydrocarbons may be produce from production wells 206 insections 608A and 608C. After some or most of the fluids have beenproduced from sections 608A and 608C, production of formation fluids inthe sections may be slowed and/or discontinued.

In certain embodiments, heating and producing hydrocarbons from sections608A and 608C creates fluid injectivity in the sections. After fluidinjectivity has been created in section 608C, an oxidizing fluid may beinjected into the section. For example, oxidizing fluid may be injectedin section 608C after a majority of the hydrocarbons have been producedfrom the section. The fluid may be injected through heaters 412,production wells 206, and/or injection wells located in section 608C. Insome embodiments, heaters 412 continue to provide heat while the fluidis being injected. In certain embodiments, heaters 412 may be turneddown or off before or during fluid injection.

During injection of oxidant, excess oxidant and/or oxidation productsmay be removed from section 608C through one or more production wells206 and/or heater/gas production wells. In some embodiments, after theformation is raised to a desired temperature, a second fluid may beintroduced into section 608C. The second fluid may be steam and/orwater. Addition of the second fluid may cool the formation. For example,when the second fluid is steam and/or water, the reactions of the secondfluid with coke and/or hydrocarbons are endothermic and producesynthesis gas. In some embodiments, oxidizing fluid is added with thesecond fluid so that some heating of section 608C occurs simultaneouswith the endothermic reactions. In some embodiments, section 608C istreated in alternating steps of adding oxidant and second fluid to heatthe formation for selected periods of time.

In certain embodiments, the pressure of the injected fluids and thepressure section 608C are controlled to control the heating in theformation. The pressure in section 608C may be controlled by controllingthe production rate of fluids from the section (for example, theproduction rate of hydrocarbons, oxidation gases and/or syngasproducts). Heating in section 608C may be controlled so that there isenough hydrocarbon volume in the section to maintain the oxidationreactions in the formation. Heating and/or pressure in section 608C mayalso be controlled (for example, by producing a minimal amount ofhydrocarbons, oxidation gases and/or syngas products) so that enoughpressure is generated to create fractures in sections adjacent to thesection (for example, creation of fractures in section 608B). Creationof fractures in adjacent sections may allow fluids from adjacentsections to flow into section 608C and cool the section. Injection ofoxidizing fluid may allow portions of the formation below the sectionheated by heaters to be heated, thus allowing heating of formationfluids in deeper and/or inaccessible portions of the subsurface to beaccessed. Section 608C may be cooled from temperatures that promotesyngas production to temperatures that promote formation of visbrokenand/or upgrade products. Such control of heat and pressure in thesection may improve efficiency and quality of products produced from theformation.

During heating of section 608C or after the section has reached adesired temperature (for example, temperatures of at least 300° C., atleast about 400° C., or at least about 500° C.), an oxidizing fluidand/or a drive fluid may be injected and/or created in section 608A. Thedrive fluid includes, but is not limited to, steam, water, hydrocarbons,surfactants, polymers, carbon dioxide, air, or mixtures thereof. In someembodiments, the catalyst system described herein is injected in section608A. In some embodiments, the catalyst system is injected prior toinjecting the oxidizing fluid. In some embodiments, production of fluidfrom section 608A is discontinued prior to injecting fluids in thesection. In some embodiments, heater wells in section 608A are convertedto injection wells.

In some embodiments, drive fluids are created in section 608A. Createddrive fluids may include air, steam, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,hydrogen, methane, pyrolyzed hydrocarbons and/or diluent. In someembodiments, hydrocarbons (for example, hydrocarbons produced fromsection 608A and/or section 608C, low value hydrocarbons and/or or wastehydrocarbon streams) are provided as a portion of the drive fluid. Insome embodiments, hydrocarbons are introduced into section 608A prior toinjecting an oxidizing fluid and/or the second fluid. Oxidation,catalytic cracking, and/or thermal cracking of introduced hydrocarbonfluids may create the drive fluid and/or a diluent.

In some embodiments, oxidizing fluid, steam or water are provided as aportion of the drive fluid. The addition of oxidizing fluid, steam,and/or water in the drive fluid may be used to control temperatures inthe sections. For example, the addition of steam or water may be coolthe section. In some embodiments, water injected as the drive fluid isturned into steam in the formation due to the higher temperatures in theformation. The conversion of water to steam may be used to reducetemperatures or maintain temperatures in the sections between 270° C.and 450° C. Maintaining the temperature between 270° C. and 450° C. mayproduce higher quality hydrocarbons and/or generate a minimal amount ofnon-condensable gases.

Residual hydrocarbons and/or coke in section 608A may be melted,visbroken, upgraded and/or oxidized to produce products that may bepushed towards section 608B as shown by the arrows in FIG. 134. In someembodiments, the temperature in section 608C and the generation of drivefluid in section 608A may increase the pressure of section 608A so thedrive fluid pushes fluids through section 608B into section 608C. Hotfluids flowing from section 608A into section 608B may melt and/orvisbreak fluids in section 608B sufficiently to allow the fluids to moveto section 608C. In section 608C, the fluids may be upgraded and/orproduced through production wells 206.

In some embodiments, oxidizing fluid injected in section 608A iscontrolled to raise the average temperature in the section to a desiredtemperature (for example, at least about 350° C., or at least about 450°C.). Injection of oxidizing fluid and/or drive fluid in section 608A maycontinue until most or a substantial portion of the fluids from section608A are moved through section 608B to section 608C. After a period oftime, injection of oxidant and/or drive fluid into 608A is slowed and/ordiscontinued.

Injection of oxidizing fluid into section 608C may be slowed or stoppedduring injection and/or creation of drive fluid and/or creation ofdiluent in section 608A. In some embodiments, injection of oxidizingfluid in section 608C is continued to maintain an average temperature inthe section of about 500° C. during injection and/or creation of drivefluid and/or diluent in section 608A. In some embodiments, the catalystsystem is injected in section 608C.

As section 608A and/or section 608C are treated with oxidizing fluid,heaters in sections 608D and 608E may be turned on. In some embodiments,section 608D is heated through conductive heat transfer from section608C and/or convective heat transfer. Section 608E may be heated withheaters. For example, an average temperature in section 608E may beraised to above 300° C. while an average temperature in section 608D ismaintained between 80° C. and 120° C. (for example, at about 100° C.).

As temperatures in section 608E reach a desired temperature (forexample, above 300° C.), production of formation fluids from section608E through production wells 206 may be started. The temperature may bereached before, during or after oxidizing fluid and/or drive fluid isinjected and/or drive fluid and/or diluent is created in section 608A.

Once the desired temperature in section 608E has been obtained (forexample, above 300° C., or above 400° C.), production may be slowedand/or stopped in section 608C and oxidation fluid and/or drive fluid isinjected and/or created in section 608C to move fluids from section 608Cthrough cooler section 608D towards section 608E as shown by the arrowsin FIG. 135. Injection and/or creation of additional oxidation fluidand/or drive fluid in section 608C may upgrade hydrocarbons from section608B that are in section 608C and/or may move fluids towards section608E.

In some embodiments, heaters in combination with heating produced byoxidizing hydrocarbons in sections 608A, 608C and/or section 608E allowsfor a reduction in the number of heaters to be used in the sectionsand/or less capital costs as heaters made of less expensive materialsmay be used. The heating pattern may be repeated through the formation.

In some embodiments, fluids in hydrocarbon layer 388 (for example,layers in a tar sands formation) may preferentially move horizontallywithin the hydrocarbon layer from the point of injection because thelayers tend to have a larger horizontal permeability than verticalpermeability. The higher horizontal permeability allows the injectedfluid to move hydrocarbons between sections preferentially versus fluidsdraining vertically due to gravity in the formation. Providingsufficient fluid pressure with the injected fluid may ensure that fluidsare moved from section 608A through section 608B into section 608C forupgrading and/or production or from section 608C through section 608Dinto section 608E for upgrading and/or production. Increased heating insections 608A, 608C, and 608E may mobilize fluids from sections 608B and608D into adjacent sections. Increased heating may also mobilize fluidsbelow section 608A through 608E and the fluid may flow from the coldersections into the heated sections for upgrading and/or production due topressure gradients established by producing fluid from the formation. Insome embodiments, one or more production wells are placed in theformation below sections 608A through 608E to facilitate production ofadditional hydrocarbons.

In some embodiments, after sections 608A and 608C are heated to desiredtemperatures, the oxidizing fluid is injected into section 608C toincrease the temperature in the section. The fluids in section 608C maymove through section 608B into section 608A as indicated by the arrowsin FIG. 136. The fluids may be produced from section 608A. Once amajority of the fluids have been produced from section 608A, thetreatment process described in FIG. 134 and FIG. 135 may be repeated.

In some embodiments, treating a formation in stages includes heating afirst portion from one or more heaters located in the first portion.Hydrocarbons may be produced from the first portion. Heat provided tothe first portion may be reduced or turned off after a selected time. Asecond portion may be substantially adjacent to the first portion. Anoxidizing fluid may be injected in the first portion to cause atemperature of the first portion to increase sufficiently to oxidizehydrocarbons in the first portion and a third portion, the third portionbeing substantially below the first portion. The second portion may beheated from heat provided from the first portion and/or third portionand/or one or more heaters located in the second portion such that anaverage temperature in the second portion is at least about 100° C.Hydrocarbons may flow from the second portion into the first portionand/or third portion. Injection of the oxidizing fluid may be reduced ordiscontinued in the first portion. The temperature of the first portionmay cool to below 600° C. to 700° C. and additional hydrocarbons may beproduced from the first portion of the formation. The additionalhydrocarbons may include oxidized hydrocarbons from the first portion,at least some hydrocarbons from the second portion, at least somehydrocarbons from the third portion of the formation, or mixturesthereof. Transportation fuel may be produced from the hydrocarbonsproduced from the first, second and/or third portions of the formation.

In some embodiments, in situ heat treatment followed by oxidation and/orcatalyst addition as described for horizontal sections is performed invertical sections of the formation. Heating a bottom vertical layerfollowed by oxidation may create microfractures in middle sections thusallowing heavy hydrocarbons to flow from the “cold” middle section tothe warmer bottom section. Lighter fluids may flow into the top sectionand continue to be upgraded and/or produced through production wells. Insome embodiments, two vertical sections are treated with heatersfollowed by oxidizing fluid.

In some embodiments, heaters in combination with an oxidizing fluidand/or drive fluid are used in various patterns. For example,cylindrical patterns, square patterns, or hexagonal patterns may be usedto heat and produce fluids from a subsurface formation. FIG. 137 andFIG. 138, depict various patterns for treatment of a subsurfaceformation. FIG. 137 depicts an embodiment of treating a subsurfaceformation using a cylindrical pattern. FIG. 138 depicts an embodiment oftreating multiple sections of a subsurface formation in a rectangularpattern. FIG. 139 is a schematic top view of the pattern depicted inFIG. 138.

Hydrocarbon layer 388 may be separated into section 608A and section608B. Section 608A represents a section of the subsurface formation thatis to be produced using an in situ heat treatment process. Section 608Brepresents a section of formation that surrounds section 608A and is notheated during the in situ heat treatment process. In certainembodiments, section 608B has a larger volume than section 608A and/orsection 608C. Section 608A may be heated using heaters 412 to mobilizeand/or pyrolyze hydrocarbons in the section. The mobilized and/orpyrolyzed hydrocarbons may be produced (for example, through one or moreproduction wells 206) from section 608A. After some or all of thehydrocarbons in section 608A have been produced, an oxidizing fluid maybe injected into the section. The fluid may be injected through heaters412, a production well, and/or an injection well located in section608A. In some embodiments, at least a portion of heaters 412 are usedand/or converted to injection wells. In some embodiments, heaters 412continue to provide heat while the fluid is being injected. In otherembodiments, heaters 412 may be turned down or off before or duringfluid injection.

In some embodiments, providing oxidizing fluid such as air to section608A causes oxidation of hydrocarbons in the section and in portions ofsection 608C. In some embodiments, treatment of section 608A with theheaters creates coked hydrocarbons and formation with substantiallyuniform porosity and/or substantially uniform injectivity so thatheating of the section is controllable when oxidizing fluid isintroduced to the section. The oxidation of hydrocarbons in section 608Awill maintain the average temperature of the section or increase theaverage temperature of the section to higher temperatures (for example,above 400° C., above 500° C., above 600° C., or higher).

In some embodiments, an average temperature of section 608C that islocated below section 608A increases due to heat generated throughoxidation of hydrocarbons and/or coke in section 608A. For example, anaverage temperature in section 608C may increase from formationtemperature to above 500° C. As the average temperature in section 608Aand/or section 608C increases through oxidation reactions, thetemperature in section 608B increases and fluids may be mobilizedtowards section 608A as shown by the arrows in FIG. 137 and FIG. 138. Insome embodiments, section 608B is heated by heaters to an averagetemperature of at least about 100° C.

In section 608A, mobilized hydrocarbons are oxidized and/or pyrolyzed toproduce visbroken, oxidized, pyrolyzed products. For example, coldbitumen in section 608B may be heated to mobilization temperature of atleast about 100° C. so that it flows into section 608A and/or section608C. In section 608A and/or section 608C, the bitumen is pyrolyzed toproduce formation fluids. Fluids may be produced through productionwells 206 and/or heater/gas production wells in section 608A. In someembodiments, no fluids are produced from section 608A during oxidation.Injection of oxidizing fluid may be reduced or discontinued in section608A once a desired temperature is reached (for example, a temperatureof at least 350° C., at least 300° C., or above 450° C.). Once oxidizingfluid is slowed and/or discontinued in sections 608A, 608C, the sectionsmay cool (for example, to temperatures below about 700° C., about 600°C., below 500° C. or below 400° C.) and remain at upgrading and/orpyrolysis temperatures for a period of time. Fluids may continue to beupgraded and may be produced from section 608A through production wells.

In certain embodiments, section 608B and/or section 608D as described inreference to FIGS. 131-139 has a larger volume than section 608A,section 608C, and/or section 608E. Section 608B and/or section 608D maybe larger in volume than the other sections so that more hydrocarbonsare produced for less energy input into the formation. Because less heatis provided to section 608B and/or section 608D (the section is heatedto lower temperatures), having a larger volume in section 608B and/orsection 608D reduces the total energy input to the formation per unitvolume. The desired volume of section 608B and/or section 608D maydepend on factors such as, but not limited to, viscosity, oilsaturation, and permeability. In addition, the degree of coking is muchless in section 608B and/or section 608D due to the lower temperature soless hydrocarbons are coked in the formation when section 608B and/orsection 608D has a larger volume. In some embodiments, the lower degreeof heating in section 608B and/or section 608D allows for cheapercapital costs as lower temperature materials (cheaper materials) may beused for heaters used in section 608B and/or section 608D.

Using the remaining hydrocarbons for heat generation and only usingelectrical heating for the initial heating stage may improve the overallenergy use efficiency of treating the formation. Using electricalheating only in the initial step may decrease the electrical power needsfor treating the formation. In addition, forming wells that are used forthe combination of production, injection, and heating/gas production maydecrease well construction costs. In some embodiments, hot gasesproduced from the formation are provided to turbines. Providing the hotgases to turbines may recover some energy and improve the overall energyuse efficiency of the process used to treat the formation.

Treating the subsurface formation, as shown by the embodiments of FIGS.131-137 may utilize carbon remaining after production of mobilized,visbroken, and/or pyrolyzed hydrocarbons for heat generation in theformation. In some embodiment, treating hydrocarbons in the subsurfaceformation, as shown in by the embodiments in FIGS. 131-137 createsproducts having economic value from hydrocarbons having low economicvalue and/or from waste hydrocarbon streams from surface facilities.

In some embodiments, a drive process (or steam injection, for example,SAGD, cyclic steam soak, or another steam recovery process) and/or insitu heat treatment process are used to treat the formation and producehydrocarbons from the formation. Treating the formation using the driveprocess and/or in situ heat treatment process may not treat theformation uniformly. Variations in the properties of the formation (forexample, fluid injectivities, permeabilities, and/or porosities) mayresult in insufficient heat to raise the temperature of one or moreportions of the formation to mobilize hydrocarbons due to channeling ofthe heat (for example, channeling of steam) in the formation. In someembodiments, the formation has portions that have been heated to atemperature of at most 200° C. or at most 100° C. After the driveprocess and/or in situ heat treatment process is completed, theformation may have portions that have lower amounts of hydrocarbonsproduced (more hydrocarbons remaining) than other parts of theformation.

In some embodiments, a formation that has been previously treated may beassessed to determine one or more portions of the formation that havenot been heated to a sufficient temperature using a drive process and/oran in situ heat treatment process. Coring, logging techniques, and/orseismic imaging may be used to assess hydrocarbons remaining in theformation and assess the location of one or more of the untreatedportions. The untreated portions may contain at least 50%, at least 60%,at least 80% or at least 90% of the initial hydrocarbons. In someembodiments, the portions with more hydrocarbons remaining are largeportions of the formation. In some embodiments, the amount ofhydrocarbons remaining in untreated portions is significantly higherthan treated portions of the formation. For example, an untreatedportion may have a recovery of at most about 10% of the hydrocarbons inplace and a treated portion may have a recovery of at least about 50% ofthe hydrocarbons in place.

In some embodiments, heaters are placed in the untreated portions toprovide heat to the portion. Heat from the heaters may raise thetemperature in the untreated portion to an average temperature of atleast about 200° C. to mobilize hydrocarbons in the untreated portion.

In certain embodiments, a drive fluid may be injected in the untreatedportion after the average temperature of the portion has been raisedusing an in situ heat treatment process. Injection of a drive fluid maymobilize hydrocarbons in the untreated portion toward one or moreproductions wells in the formation. In some embodiments, the drive fluidis injected in the untreated portion to raise the temperature of theportion.

FIGS. 140 and 141 depict side view representations of embodiments oftreating a tar sands formation after treatment of the formation using asteam injection process and/or an in situ heat treatment process.Hydrocarbon layer 388 may have been previously treated using a steaminjection process and/or an in situ heat treatment process. Portion 1412of hydrocarbon layer 388 may have had measurable amounts of hydrocarbonsremoved by a steam injection process and/or an in situ heat treatmentprocess. Portions 1414 in hydrocarbon layer 388 may have been neartreated portions (for example, portion 1412) however, an averagetemperature in portions 1414 was not sufficient to heat the portions andmobilize hydrocarbons in the portions. Thus, portion 1414 remainsuntreated and may have a greater amount of hydrocarbons remaining thanportions 1412 following treatment with the steam injection processand/or an in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments,hydrocarbon layer 388 includes two or more portions 1414 with morehydrocarbons remaining than portions 1412.

Heaters 412 may be placed in untreated portions 1414 to provideadditional heat to these portions. Heat from heaters 412 may raise anaverage temperature in portions 1414 to mobilized hydrocarbons in theportions. Hydrocarbons mobilized from portions 1414 may be produced fromthe production well 206.

In some embodiments, a drive fluid is provided to untreated portions1414 after heating with heaters 412. As shown in FIG. 141, injectionwell 602 is used to inject a drive fluid (for example, steam and/or hotcarbon dioxide) into hydrocarbon layer 388 below overburden 400. Thedrive fluid moves mobilized hydrocarbons in portions 1414 towardsproduction well 206. In some embodiments, the drive fluid is provided tountreated portions 1414 prior to heating with heaters 412 and/or heaters412 are not necessary.

In some embodiments, formation fluid produced from hydrocarboncontaining formations using an in situ heat treatment process may havean API gravity of at least 20°, at least 25°, at least 30°, at least 35°or at least 40°. In certain embodiments, the in situ heat treatmentprocess provides substantially uniform heating of the hydrocarboncontaining formation. Due to the substantially uniform heating theformation fluid produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation maycontain lower amounts of halogenated compounds (for example, chloridesand fluorides) arsenic or compounds of arsenic, ammonium carbonateand/or ammonium bicarbonate as compared to formation fluids producedfrom conventional processing (for example, surface retorting orsubsurface retorting). The produced formation fluid may containnon-hydrocarbon gases, hydrocarbons, or mixtures thereof. Thehydrocarbons may have a carbon number ranging from 5 to 30.

Hydrocarbon containing formations (for example, oil shale formationsand/or tar sands formations) may contain significant amounts of bitumenentrained in the mineral matrix of the formation and/or a significantamounts of bitumen in shallow layers of the formation. Heatinghydrocarbon formations containing entrained bitumen to high temperaturesmay produce of non-condensable hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbon gasesinstead of liquid hydrocarbons and/or bitumen. Heating shallow formationlayers containing bitumen may also result in a significant amount ofgaseous products produced from the formation. Methods and/or systems ofheating hydrocarbon formations having entrained bitumen at lowertemperatures that convert portions of the formation to bitumen and/orlower molecular weight hydrocarbons and/or increases permeability in thehydrocarbon containing formation to produce liquid hydrocarbons and/orbitumen are desired.

In some embodiments, an oil shale formation is heated using an in situheat treatment process using a plurality of heaters. Heat from theheaters is allowed to heat portions of the oil shale formation to anaverage temperature that allows conversion of at least a portion ofkerogen in the formation to bitumen, other hydrocarbons. Heating of theformation may create permeability in the oil shale to mobilize thebitumen and/or other hydrocarbons entrained in the kerogen. The oilshale formation may include at least 20%, at least 30% or at least 50%bitumen. The oil shale formation may be heated to an average temperatureranging from about 250° C. to about 350° C., from about 260° C. to about340° C., or from about 270° C. to about 330° C. Heating at temperaturesat or below pyrolysis temperatures may inhibit production of hydrocarbongases and/or non-hydrocarbon gases, convert portions of the kerogen tobitumen and/or increase permeability in the mineral matrix such that thebitumen is released from the mineral matrix. The bitumen may bemobilized towards production wells and produced through production wellsand/or heater wells in the oil shale formation. The produced bitumen maybe processed to produce commercial products.

In some embodiments, production rates from two or more production wellslocated in a treatment area of a hydrocarbon containing formation arecontrolled to produce bitumen and/or liquid hydrocarbons having selectedqualities. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon containing formation isan oil shale formation. Selective control of operating conditions (forexample, heating rate, average temperatures in the formation, andproduction rates) may allow production of bitumen from a firstproduction well located in the first portion of the hydrocarboncontaining formation and production of liquid hydrocarbons from one ormore second production wells located in another portion of thehydrocarbon containing formation. In some embodiments, the liquidhydrocarbons produced from the second production wells contain none orsubstantially no bitumen. Selected qualities of the liquid hydrocarbonsinclude, but are not limited to, boiling point distribution and/or APIgravity. Production of bitumen using the methods described herein from afirst production well while producing mobilized and/or visbrokenhydrocarbons from second production wells in a portion of thehydrocarbon formation that is at a lower temperature than other portionsmay inhibit coking in the second production wells. Furthermore, qualityof the mobilized and/or visbroken hydrocarbons produced from the secondproduction wells is of higher quality relative to producing hydrocarbonsfrom a single production well since all or most of the bitumen isproduced from the first production well.

In some embodiments, heat provided from heaters to the first portion ofthe hydrocarbon formation may be sufficient to pyrolyze hydrocarbonsand/or kerogen to form an in situ drive fluid (for example, pyrolyzationfluids that contain a significant amount of gases or vaporized liquids)near heaters positioned in the first portion of the formation. In someembodiments, the heaters may be positioned around the production wellsin the first portion. Pyrolysis of kerogen, bitumen and/or hydrocarbonsmay produce carbon dioxide, C₁-C₄ hydrocarbons, and/or hydrogen.Pressure in one or more heater wellbores in the first portion may becontrolled (for example, increased) such that the in situ drive fluidmoves bitumen towards one or more production wells in the first portion.Bitumen may be produced from one or more productions wells in the firstportion of the formation. In some embodiments, the production wells areheater wells and/or contain heaters. Providing heat to a production wellor producing through a heater well may inhibit the bitumen fromsolidifying during production.

Bitumen produced from oil shale formations may have more hydrogen, morestraight chain hydrocarbons, more hydrocarbons that contain heteroatoms(for example, sulfur, oxygen and/or nitrogen atoms), less metals and bemore viscous than bitumen produced from a tar sands formation. Since thebitumen produced from an oil shale formation may be different frombitumen produced from a tar sands formation, the products produced fromoil shale bitumen may have different and/or better properties thanproducts produced from tar sands bitumen. In some embodiments,hydrocarbons separated from bitumen produced from an oil shale formationhas a boiling range distribution between 343° C. and 538° C. at 0.101MPa, a low metal content and/or a high nitrogen content which makes thehydrocarbons suitable for use as feed for refinery processes (forexample, feed for a catalytic and/or thermal cracking unit to producenaphtha). VGO made from bitumen produced from oil shale may have morehydrogen relative to heavy oil used in conventional processing. Otherproducts (for example, organic sulfur compounds, organic oxygencompounds and/or organic sulfur compounds) separated from oil shalebitumen may have commercial value or be used as solvation fluids duringan in situ heat treatment process.

FIGS. 142 and 143 depict a top view representation of embodiments oftreatment of a hydrocarbon containing formation using an in situ heattreatment process. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon containingformation is in an oil shale formation. Heaters 412 may be may bepositioned in heater wells in portions of hydrocarbon layer 388 betweenfirst production well 206A and second productions wells 206B. Heaters412 may surround first production well 206A. In some embodiments,heaters 412 and/or production wells 206A, 206B may be positionedsubstantially vertical hydrocarbon layer 388. Patterns of heater wells,such as triangles, squares, rectangles, hexagons and/or octagons may beused. In certain embodiments, portions of hydrocarbon layer 388 thatinclude heaters 412 and production wells 206 may be surrounded by one ormore perimeter barriers, either naturally occurring (for example,overburden and/or underburden) or installed (for example, barrierwells). Selective amounts of heat may be provided to portions of thetreatment area as a function of the quality of formation fluid to beproduced from the first and/or second production wells. Amounts of heatmay be provided by varying the number and/or density of heaters in theportions. The number and spacing of heaters may be adjusted to obtainthe formation fluid with the desired qualities from first productionwell 206A and second production wells 206B. In some embodiments, heaters412 are spaced about 1.5 m from first production well 206A.

Heaters 412 provide heat to a first portion of hydrocarbon layer 388between heaters 412 and first production well 206A. An averagetemperature in the first portion between heaters 412 and production well206A may range from about 200° C. to about 250° C. or from about 220° C.to about 240° C. The mobilized bitumen may be produced from productionwell 206A. In some embodiments, production well 206A is a heater well.In some embodiments, bitumen is produced from heaters 412 surroundingproduction well 206A.

The produced bitumen may be treated at facilities at the production siteand/or transported to other treatment facilities. In some embodiments,the temperature and pressure in the portion between heaters 412 andproduction well 206A is sufficient to allow bitumen entrained in thekerogen to flow out of the kerogen and move towards first productionwell 206A. The temperature and pressure in first production well 206Amay be controlled to reduce the viscosity of the bitumen to allow thebitumen to be produced as a liquid.

Heat provided from heaters 412 may heat a second portion of hydrocarbonlayer 388 proximate heaters 412 to an average temperature ranging from250° C. to about 300° C. or from about 270° C. to about 280° C. Theaverage temperature in the second portion proximate heaters 412 may besufficient to pyrolyze kerogen, visbreak bitumen and/or mobilizehydrocarbons in the portion to generate formation fluid. The generatedformation fluid may include some gaseous hydrocarbons, liquid mobilized,visbroken, and/or pyrolyzed hydrocarbons and/or bitumen. Maintaining theaverage temperature in the second portion proximate heaters 412 in arange from 250° C. to about 280° C. may promote production of liquidhydrocarbons and bitumen instead of production of hydrocarbon gases nearthe heaters.

The pressure in portions of hydrocarbon layer 388 may be controlled tobe below the lithostatic pressure of the portions near the heatersand/or production wells. The average temperature and pressure may becontrolled in the portions proximate the heaters and/or production wellssuch that the permeability of the portions is substantially uniform. Asubstantially uniform permeability may inhibit channeling of theformation fluid through the portions. Having a substantially uniformpermeable portion may inhibit channeling of the bitumen, mobilizedhydrocarbons and/or visbroken hydrocarbons in the portion.

At least some of the formation fluid generated proximate heaters 412 maymove towards second production wells 206B positioned in a third portionof hydrocarbon layer 388. Mobilized and/or visbroken hydrocarbon may beproduced from second production wells 206B. Average temperatures in thethird portion of hydrocarbon layer 388 proximate second production wells206B may be less than average temperatures in the second portions nearheaters 412 and/or the first portion between heaters 412 and firstproduction wells 206A. In some embodiments, mobilized and/or visbrokenhydrocarbons are cold produced from second production wells 206B.Temperature and pressure in the third portions proximate secondproduction wells 206B may be controlled to produce mobilized and/orvisbroken hydrocarbons having selected properties. In certainembodiments, hydrocarbons produced from second production wells 206B maycontain a minimal amount of bitumen or hydrocarbons having a boilingpoint greater than 538° C. The hydrocarbons produced from productionwells 206B may have an API gravity of at least 35°. In some embodiments,a majority of the hydrocarbons produced from second production wells206B have a boiling range distribution between 343° C. and 538° C. at0.101 MPa.

Producing mobilized and/or visbroken hydrocarbons from second productionwells 206B in the third portion at a lower temperature than the firstand/or second portions may inhibit coking in the second production wellsand/or improve product quality of the produced mobilized and/orvisbroken liquid hydrocarbons.

In some embodiments, a drive fluid is injected and/or created in thehydrocarbon containing formation to allow mobilization of bitumen and/orheavier hydrocarbons in the formation towards first production well206A. The drive fluid may include formation fluid recovered and/orgenerated from the in situ heat treatment process. For example, thedrive fluid may include, but is not limited to, carbon dioxide, C₁-C₇hydrocarbons and/or steam recovered and/or generated from pyrolysis ofhydrocarbons from the in situ heat treatment of the oil shale formation.

In some embodiments, heat provided to portions between heaters 412 andfirst production well 206A is sufficient to pyrolyze hydrocarbons and/orkerogen and generate the drive fluid in situ (for example, pyrolyzationfluids that are gases). Pressure in one or more heater wellbores may becontrolled such that in situ drive fluid moves bitumen between secondproduction wells 206B and first production well 206A towards the firstproduction well 206A as shown by arrows 1416 in FIG. 143. In someembodiments, the in situ drive fluid creates a barrier (gas cap) in theportion between heaters 412 and second production wells 206B to inhibitbitumen or heavy hydrocarbons from migrating towards the secondproduction wells, thus allowing higher quality liquid hydrocarbons to beproduced from second production wells 206B.

In some embodiments, the drive fluid and/or solvation fluid is injectedin hydrocarbon layer 388 through second production wells 206B, heaters412, or one or more injection wells 602 (shown in FIG. 143), and movebitumen in portions between second production wells 206B and firstproduction well 206A towards the first production well. In someembodiments, the pressure in one or more of the wellbores is increasedby introducing the drive fluid through the wellbore under pressure suchthat the drive fluid drives at least a portion of the bitumen towardsfirst production well 206A. In some embodiments, an average temperatureof the portion of the formation the solvation fluid is injected rangesfrom about 200° C. to about 300° C. The average temperature in theportion between heaters 412 and first production well 206A may besufficient to pyrolyze kerogen, and/or thermally visbreak at least somethe bitumen and/or solvation fluid as it moves through the portion. Thedriven fluid and/or solvated fluid may be cooled as it is moves towardsfirst production well 206A. Cooling of the fluid as it approaches firstproduction well 206A may inhibit coking of fluids in or proximate thefirst production well. Bitumen and/or heavy hydrocarbons containingbitumen from portions between second production wells 206B and firstproduction well 206A may be produced from first production well 206A. Insome embodiments, the formation fluid produced from first productionwell 206A includes solvation fluid and/or drive fluid.

In some embodiments, hydrocarbons containing heteroatoms (for example,nitrogen, sulfur and/or oxygen) are separated from the produced bitumenand used as a solvation fluid. Production and recycling of a solvationfluid containing heteroatoms may remove unwanted compounds from thebitumen. In some embodiments, organic nitrogen compounds produced fromthe in situ conversion process is used as a solvation fluid. The organicnitrogen compounds may be injected into a formation having a highconcentration of sulfur containing compounds. The organic nitrogencompounds may react and/or complex with the sulfur or sulfur compoundsand form compounds that have chemical characteristics that facilitateremoval of the sulfur from the formation fluid.

In certain embodiments, high molecular organonitrogen compounds may beused as solvation fluids. The high molecular weight organonitrogencompounds may be produced from an in situ heat treatment process,injected in the formation, produced from the formation and re-injectedin the formation. Heating of the high molecular weight organonitrogencompounds in the formation may reduce the molecular weight of theorganonitrogen compounds and form lower molecular weight organonitrogencompounds. Formation of lower molecular weight organonitrogen compoundsmay facilitate removal of nitrogen compounds from liquid hydrocarbonsand/or formation fluid in surface treatment facilities.

Treating hydrocarbon containing formations in order to convert, upgrade,and/or extract the hydrocarbons is an expensive and time consumingprocess. Any process and/or system which might increase the efficiencyof the treatment of the formation is highly desirable. Increasing theefficiency of the treatment of the formation may include optimizing heatsource locations and the spacing between the heat sources in a patternof heat sources. Increasing the efficiency of the treatment of theformation may include optimizing the heating schedule of the formation.Repositioning the location of a producer well (for example, verticallywithin the formation) may increase the efficiency of the treatment ofthe formation. Adjusting the initial bottom-hole pressure of one or moreproducer well in the formation may increase the efficiency of theformation treatment process. Adjusting the blowdown time of one or moreproducer wells may increase the efficiency of the formation treatmentprocess. Optimizing one or more of the mentioned variables alone, or incombination, may increase the efficiency of the formation treatmentprocess resulting in reduced costs and/or increased production. Even arelatively small increase of efficiency may result in billions ofdollars of additional revenue due to the scale of such treatmentprocesses in the form of reduced operating costs, increased quality ofthe hydrocarbon product produced, and/or increased quantity of thehydrocarbon product produced from the formation.

Many different types of wells or wellbores may be used to treat thehydrocarbon containing formation using the in situ heat treatmentprocess. In some embodiments, vertical and/or substantially verticalwells are used to treat the formation. In some embodiments, horizontal(such as J-shaped wells and/or L-shaped wells), and/or u-shaped wellsare used to treat the formation. In some embodiments, combinations ofhorizontal wells, vertical wells, and/or other combinations are used totreat the formation. In certain embodiments, wells extend through theoverburden of the formation to a hydrocarbon containing layer of theformation. Heat in the wells may be lost to the overburden. In certainembodiments, surface and/or overburden infrastructures used to supportheaters and/or production equipment in horizontal wellbores and/oru-shaped wellbores are large in size and/or numerous.

In certain embodiments, heaters, heater power sources, productionequipment, supply lines, and/or other heater or production supportequipment are positioned in substantially horizontal and/or inclinedtunnels. Positioning these structures in tunnels may allow smaller sizedheaters and/or other equipment to be used to treat the formation.Positioning these structures in tunnels may also reduce energy costs fortreating the formation, reduce emissions from the treatment process,facilitate heating system installation, and/or reduce heat loss to theoverburden, as compared to conventional hydrocarbon recovery processesthat utilize surface based equipment. U.S. Published Patent ApplicationNos. 2007-0044957 to Watson et al.; 2008-0017416 to Watson et al.; and2008-0078552 to Donnelly et al., all of which are incorporated herein byreference, describe methods of drilling from a shaft for undergroundrecovery of hydrocarbons and methods of underground recovery ofhydrocarbons.

In some embodiments, increasing the efficiency of the treatment of theformation may include optimizing heat source locations and the spacingbetween the heat sources in a pattern of heat sources. In certainembodiments, heat sources (for example, heaters) have uneven orirregular spacing in a heater pattern. For example, the space betweenheat sources in the heater pattern varies or the heat sources are notevenly distributed in the heater pattern. In certain embodiments, thespace between heat sources in the heater pattern decreases as thedistance from the production well at the center of the patternincreases. Thus, the density of heat sources (number of heat sources persquare area) increases as the heat sources get more distant from theproduction well.

In some embodiments, heat sources are evenly spaced in the heaterpattern but have varying heat outputs such that the heat sources providean uneven or varying heat distribution in the heater pattern. Varyingthe heat output of the heat sources may be used to, for example,effectively mimic having heat sources with varying spacing in the heaterpattern. For example, heat sources closer to the production well at thecenter of the heater pattern may provide lower heat outputs than heatsources at further distances from the production well. The heateroutputs may be varied such that the heater outputs gradually increase asthe heat sources increase in distance from the production well.

Heat sources may be positioned in an irregular pattern in a horizontallyoriented heating zone of the formation in relation to, for example, aproducer well. Heat sources may be positioned in an irregular pattern ina vertically oriented heating zone of the formation in relation to, forexample, a producer well. Irregular patterns may have advantages overprevious equivalently spaced patterns relative to a producer well. Forexample, irregular patterns of heat sources may create channels withinthe formation to assist in directing hydrocarbons through the channelsmore efficiently to producer wells. In some embodiments, patterns ofheat sources may be based on the distribution and/or type ofhydrocarbons in the formation. The portion of the formation may bedivided into different heating zones. Different zones within the sameformation may have different patterns of heaters within each zone, forexample, depending upon the particular type of hydrocarbon within theparticular heating zone.

Using irregular patterns for positioning heat sources in the formationmay reduce the number of heat sources needed in the formation. Theinstallation and maintenance of heat sources in a formation accounts fora significant percentage of the operating costs associated with thetreatment of the formation. In some instances, installation andmaintenance of heat sources in the formation may account for as much as40%, 50%, 60%, or more of the operating costs of treating the formation.Reducing the number of heaters used to treat the formation hassignificant economic benefits. Reducing the time that heaters are usedto heat the portion of the formation will reduce costs associated withtreating the portion.

In certain embodiments, the uneven or irregular spacing of heat sourcesis based on regular geometric patterns. For example, the irregularspacing of heat sources may be based on a hexagonal, triangular, square,octagonal, other geometric combinations, and/or combinations thereof. Insome embodiments, heat sources are placed at irregular intervals alongone or more of the geometric patterns to provide the irregular spacing.In some embodiments, the heat sources are placed in an irregulargeometric pattern. In some embodiments, the geometric pattern hasirregular spacing between rows in the pattern to provide the irregularspacing of heat sources.

Increasing the efficiency of the treatment of the formation may includeoptimizing the heating schedule of the formation. As previouslymentioned, the installation and maintenance of heat sources in aformation accounts for a significant percentage of the operating costsassociated with the treatment of the formation. Maintenance may includethe energy required by the heat sources to heat the formation.Previously, treatment of a portion of a formation included heating theformation with heat sources, the majority of which were typically turnedon at the same time or at least within a relatively short time frame. Insome embodiments, implementing a heating schedule may include heatingthe portion of the formation in phases. Different horizontal zoneswithin the portion of the formation may be controlled independently andmay be heated at different times during the treatment process. Differentvertical zones within the portion of the formation may be controlledindependently and may be heated at different times during the treatmentprocess. Heat sources within different zones within a portion may starttheir heating cycle at different times.

Heating in a first zone of the formation may be initiated using a firstset of heat sources positioned in the first zone. Heating in a secondzone of the formation may be initiated using a second set of heatsources positioned in the second zone. Heating may be initiated in thesecond zone after the first set of heat sources in the first zone havecommenced heating the first zone. Heating in the first zone may continueafter heating in the second zone initiates. In some embodiments, heatingin the first zone may discontinue when, or at some point after, heatingin the second zone initiates. When referring to the first zone or thesecond zone herein, this nomenclature should not be seen as limiting andthese terms do not refer to the physical relation of the different zonesto each other within the portion of the formation. In some embodiments,the portion of the formation may include two or more heating zones. Forexample, the portion of the formation may include 3, 4, 5, or 6 heatingzones per portion of the formation. In certain embodiments, the portionof the formation includes 4 heating zones per portion of the formation.The heating zone may include one or more rows of heat sources. In someembodiments, heat produced by heat sources within different heatingzones overlaps providing a cumulative heating effect upon the portion ofthe formation where the overlap occurs. Different portions of theformation may have different heat source patterns and/or numbers of heatsources within each zone.

In some embodiments, heater sequencing is used to increase efficiency byheating a bottom portion of the formation before heating an upperportion of the formation. Heating the bottom portion of the formationfirst may allow some in situ conversion of any hydrocarbons (forexample, bitumen) in the bottom portion. As hydrocarbons products areproduced from the bottom portion using production wells positioned inthe formation, hydrocarbons from the upper portion of the formation maybe conveyed towards the bottom portion. In some embodiments,hydrocarbons from the upper portion that have been conveyed to the lowerportion have not been heated by heat sources positioned in the upperportion.

In some embodiments, the lower portion of the formation includesapproximately the lower third of the formation (not including theoverburden). The upper portion may include approximately the upper twothirds of the formation (not including the overburden). In certainembodiments, about 20% or more heat flux per volume is injected into thelower portion than the upper portion over the first five years oftreatment of the formation. For the entire formation, such injection mayequate into about 15% less heat flux per volume for the first five yearsas compared to turning on all of the heaters at the same time usingheaters with consistent heater spacing.

Greater heat flux per volume may be provided to one portion (forexample, the lower portion) relative to another portion (for example,the upper portion) of the formation using several different methods. Insome embodiments, the lower portion includes more heat sources than theupper portion. In some embodiments, heat sources in the lower portionprovide heat for a longer period of time than heat sources in the upperportion of the formation. In some embodiments, heat sources in the lowerportion provide more energy per heat source than heat sources in theupper portion. Any combination of the mentioned methods may be used toensure greater heat flux to one portion of the formation relative toanother portion of the formation.

Producing hydrocarbons from the lower portion first may create space inthe lower formation for hydrocarbons from the upper portion to beconveyed by gravity to the lower portion. Not heating hydrocarbons inthe upper portion of the formation may reduce over cracking or overpyrolyzing of these hydrocarbons, which may result in a better qualityof produced hydrocarbons for the formation. Using such a strategy mayresult in a lower gas to oil ratio. In some embodiments, a greaterreduction in the percentage of gas produced relative to the increase inthe percentage of oil produced may result, but the overall total marketvalue of the products may be greater.

In certain embodiments, hydrocarbons in the lower portion are pyrolyzedand produced first, and any pyrolyzation products (for example, gasproducts) resulting from the pyrolyzation process in the lower portionmay move out of the lower portion into the upper portion. Productsmoving from the lower portion to the upper portion of the formation mayresult in temperature increasing in the upper portion. Temperatureincreases in the upper portion may result in increased mobility in theupper portion resulting in easier movement of hydrocarbons in the upperportion to the lower portion for pyrolyzation and/or production.Pyrolyzation products moving to the upper portion may result in pressureincreasing in the upper portion, which may drive hydrocarbons to thelower portion for pyrolyzation and/or production.

In certain embodiments, production wells are positioned in and/orsubstantially adjacent a lower portion of the formation. Positioningproduction wells in and/or substantially adjacent a lower portion of theformation facilitates production of hydrocarbons from the lower portionof the formation. Heat sources adjacent to the production well may behorizontally and/or vertically offset from the production well. In someembodiments, a horizontal row of heat sources is positioned at a depthequivalent to the depth of the production well. A row of multiple heatsources may also be positioned at a greater or lesser depth than thedepth of the production well. Such an arrangement of heat sourcesrelative to the production well may create channels within the formationfor movement of mobilized and/or pyrolyzed hydrocarbons toward theproduction well.

FIG. 144 depicts a cross-sectional representation of substantiallyhorizontal heaters 412 positioned in a pattern with consistent spacingin a hydrocarbon layer in the Grosmont formation. Horizontal heaters 412are positioned in a consistently spaced pattern around and in relationto producer wells 206 in hydrocarbon layer 388 beneath overburden 400.Patterns with consistent spacing, typically horizontally and vertically,as depicted in FIG. 144 have been discussed previously. FIG. 145 depictsa cross-sectional representation of substantially horizontal heaters 412positioned in a pattern with irregular spacing in hydrocarbon layer 388in the Grosmont formation. Horizontal heaters 412 are positioned in anirregularly spaced pattern around and in relation to producer wells 206in hydrocarbon layer 388 beneath overburden 400. In the embodimentdepicted in FIG. 144, there are 16 horizontal heaters 412 per producerwell 206. The pattern depicted in FIG. 145 includes four rows of heatersin four heating zones 628A-D. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 145,vertical spacing between the different rows of heaters in heating zones628A-D is irregular. There may be at least some to significant overlapof the heat between the rows of heaters. For example, heaters 412 inzones 628C-D may both heat the area of the formation positionedsubstantially between the two rows of heaters. In the embodimentdepicted in FIG. 145, there are 18 horizontal heaters 412 per producerwell 206.

Heaters 412 in the FIG. 144 embodiment may initiate heating theformation substantially within the same time frame. Heaters 412 in theFIG. 145 embodiment may employ a phased heating process for heating theformation. Heaters 412 in zones 628C-D may initiate first, heating theformation at the same time. Heaters 412 in zone 628B may initiate at alater date (for example, ˜104 days after the heaters in zones 628C-D),and finally followed by heaters 412 in zone 628A (for example, ˜593 daysafter the heaters in zones 628C-D).

FIG. 146 depicts a graphical representation of a comparison of thetemperature and the pressure over time for two different portions of theformation using the different heating patterns. Curve 630 depicts theaverage temperature and curve 632 the average pressure during thetreatment process using the consistently spaced heater pattern depictedin FIG. 144. Curve 634 depicts the average temperature and curve 636 theaverage pressure during the treatment process using the optimized heaterpattern depicted in FIG. 145. FIG. 146 shows that average temperatureand pressure are lower for the portion of the formation using theoptimized heater pattern. The lower average temperature and pressure forthe portion of the formation using the optimized heater pattern mayexplain the increased quality of oil produced by this portion.

FIG. 147 depicts a graphical representation of a comparison of theaverage temperature over time for different treatment areas for twodifferent portions of the formation using the different heatingpatterns. Curves 638, 642, and 646 show the average temperature overtime for the Upper Grosmont 3, the Upper Ireton, and Nisku areas,respectively, of the portion of the formation during the treatmentprocess using the consistently spaced heater pattern depicted in FIG.144. Curves 640, 644, and 648 show the average temperature over time forthe Upper Grosmont 3, the Upper Ireton, and Nisku areas, respectively,of the portion of the formation during the treatment process using theoptimized heater pattern depicted in FIG. 145. A lower averagetemperature is seen in FIG. 147 for the optimized heater pattern for thedeeper Upper Grosmont 3 and Upper Ireton; however, the Nisku which isheated directly in the optimized heater pattern has a higher averagetemperature.

In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 144, the bottom-hole pressure wasoverall kept at a relatively high pressure, which varied greatly overthe course of the treatment process. Additionally, the blowdown time wasat greater than 2000 days and the upper layer of the hydrocarboncontaining portion below the overburden was not heated for theembodiment depicted in FIG. 144. However, for the embodiment depicted inFIG. 145, the bottom-hole pressure was overall kept at a relatively lowpressure which varied little for long periods of time over the course ofthe treatment process. The blowdown time was at ˜400 days and the upperlayer of the hydrocarbon containing portion below the overburden washeated (see the heaters in zone 628A) for the embodiment depicted inFIG. 145. In some embodiments, the pressure in the formation isincreased to between about 2070 kPa (about 300 psi) and about 3450 kPa(about 500 psi) for a period of time. The period of time may be 200 daysto 600 days, 300 days to 500 days, or 350 days to 450 days. After theperiod of time has expired, the pressure in the formation may bedecreased to between about 515 kPa (about 75 psi) and about 1030 kPa(about 150 psi), between about 500 kPa and about 1000 kPa, or betweenabout 450 kPa and about 1100 kPa. FIG. 148 depicts a graphicalrepresentation of the bottom-hole pressures over time for two producerwells (curves 650 and 652) associated with the heater pattern in FIG.144 and for two producer wells (curves 654 and 656) associated with theheater pattern in FIG. 145. Some of the differences between the twotreatment processes are summarized in TABLE 2.

TABLE 2 Heater Pattern Heater Pattern in FIG. 144 in FIG. 145 Number ofHeaters/ 16 18 Producer Heating Schedule Constant heating of Phasedheating entire portion of formation Blowdown Time Late (>2000 days)Early (<600 days) Bottom-Hole Pressure High and variable Low and steadyHeater Spacing Consistent spacing Variable horizontal and verticalspacing Upper Area of Treated No direct heat Directly heated Portionwith installed heaters

The differences between the heating process depicted in FIG. 144 and inFIG. 145 resulted in significant differences in the results of thetreatment processes. In the optimized heating treatment process,depicted in FIG. 145, a preferably much lower gas-to-oil ratio (GOR)resulted relative to the treatment process depicted in FIG. 144. Heatingin zone 628A increased liquid hydrocarbon production by ˜38% in the zonerelative to a similar area in the treatment process depicted in FIG.144. In addition, overall oil production was increased and the bitumenfraction decreased for the optimized heating treatment process FIG. 145relative to the FIG. 144 treatment process.

FIG. 149 depicts a graphical representation of a comparison of thecumulative oil and gas products extracted over time from two differentportions of the formation using the different heating patterns. Curves658 and 662 show the cumulative oil and gas products, respectively,extracted over time for the portion of the formation using theconsistently spaced heater pattern depicted in FIG. 144. Curves 660 and664 show the cumulative oil and gas products, respectively, extractedover time for the portion of the formation using the optimized heaterpattern depicted in FIG. 145. The optimized heater pattern producedsignificantly more oil, but less gas, due to the lower operatingtemperatures and less pyrolyzation of the hydrocarbons. Some of thedifferences between the results of using the two treatment processes aresummarized in TABLE 3. In TABLE 3, only the percent change for NPV (netpresent value), NPV/Capital Expenses, and NPV/(CapitalExpenses+Operating Expenses) are shown.

TABLE 3 Heater Heater Pattern in FIG. Pattern in FIG. Percent 144 145Change Cumulative Oil (bbl) 58,891 78,746 33.7% Cumulative Resid (bbl)16,802 17,771 5.8% Cumulative distillate 41,314 60,456 46.2% (bbl)Cumulative Gas 104.0 69.5 −33.2% (MMscf) Cumulative Heat 80,715 77,577−3.9% (MMBTU) Heat Efficiency 0.73 1.02 39.7% (bbl/MMBTU) API 22.9 24.67.4% NPV 40.9% NPV/Capital Expenses 26.2% NPV/(Capital Expenses + 39.0%Operating Expenses)

FIG. 150 depicts a cross-sectional representation of another embodimentof substantially horizontal heaters 412 positioned in a pattern withirregular spacing in hydrocarbon layer 388 in the Grosmont formation.Horizontal heaters 412 are positioned in an irregularly spaced patternaround and in relation to producer wells 206 beneath overburden 400. Thepattern depicted in FIG. 150 includes five rows of heaters in fiveheating zones 628A-E. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 150, verticalspacing between the different rows of heaters in heating zones 628A-E isirregular. There may be at least some to significant overlap of the heatbetween the rows of heaters. For example, heaters 412 in zones 628C-Emay both heat the area of the formation positioned substantially betweenthe three rows of heaters. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 150, thereare 18 horizontal heaters 412 per producer well 206 as in theirregularly spaced four row heater pattern depicted in FIG. 145.

Heaters 412 in the FIG. 150 embodiment may employ a phased heatingprocess for heating the formation similar to the embodiment depicted inFIG. 145. Heaters 412 in zone 628E may initiate first. Heaters 412 inzone 628D may initiate at a later date (for example, ˜5 days after theheaters in zone 628E), followed by heaters 412 in zone 628C (forexample, ˜57 days after the heaters in zone 628E). Heaters 412 in zone628B may initiate at a later date (for example, ˜391 days after theheaters in zone 628E), finally followed by heaters 412 in zone 628A (forexample, ˜547 days after the heaters in zone 628E).

FIG. 151 depicts a cross-sectional representation of yet anotherembodiment of substantially horizontal heaters 412 positioned in apattern with irregular spacing in hydrocarbon layer 388. In anembodiment, the hydrocarbon layer is a portion of the Grosmontformation. The pattern depicted in FIG. 151 includes four rows ofheaters in four heating zones 628A-D. In the embodiment depicted in FIG.151, vertical spacing between the different rows of heaters in heatingzones 628A-D is irregular. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 151, thereare 17 horizontal heaters 412 per producer well 206.

Heaters 412 in the FIG. 151 embodiment may employ a phased heatingprocess for heating the formation similar to the embodiment depicted inFIG. 145. Heaters 412 in zones 628C-D may initiate first. Heaters 412 inzone 628B may initiate at a later date (for example, ˜17 days after theheaters in zones 628C-D), followed by heaters 412 in zone 628A (forexample, ˜411 days after the heaters in zones 628C-D).

FIG. 152 depicts a cross-sectional representation of another additionalembodiment of substantially horizontal heaters 412 positioned in apattern with irregular spacing in hydrocarbon layer 388 in the Grosmontformation. The pattern depicted in FIG. 152 includes four rows ofheaters in four heating zones 628A-D. In the embodiment depicted in FIG.152, vertical spacing between the different rows of heaters in heatingzones 628A-D is irregular. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 152, thereare 15 horizontal heaters 412 per producer well 206.

Heaters 412 in the FIG. 152 embodiment may employ a phased heatingprocess for heating the formation, similar to the embodiment depicted inFIG. 145. Heaters 412 in zones 628C-D may initiate first. Heaters 412 inzone 628B may initiate at a later date (for example, ˜46 days after theheaters in zones 628C-D), followed by heaters 412 in zone 628A (forexample, ˜291 days after the heaters in zones 628C-D). A comparison ofsome of the results of the different optimized heating patterns aresummarized in TABLE 4. TABLE 4 shows that different patterns of heatershave real impact on the overall efficiency and profitability of thetreatment process for subsurface hydrocarbon containing formations. InTABLE 4, Capital Expenses, NPV (net present value), NPV/CapitalExpenses, IRR (internal rate of return), and NPV/(CapitalExpenses+Operating Expenses) are scaled to percentages of values for theheater pattern depicted in FIG. 145. As shown in TABLE 4, using fewerheaters does not necessarily lead to the most desirable result. Incertain embodiments, the most efficient heater pattern for certainformations appears to be the heater pattern depicted in FIG. 145.

TABLE 4 Heater Heater Heater Pattern in Pattern in Pattern in HeaterPattern in FIG. 145 FIG. 150 FIG. 151 FIG. 152 No. of Heaters/ 18 18 1715 Producer Capital Expenses 100%  100% 94.7% 84.4% NPV 2.17 91.2% 87.5%77.4% NPV/Capital 5.64 91.3% 94.0% 91.8% Expenses IRR 0.67 89.5% 94.0% 100% Max. Pressure 471.3 608.69 686.3 572.2 Cum. Oil (bbl) 78,745.971,107.9 67,551.48 60,132.5 API 24.6 27.94 23.16 21.6 NPV/(Capital 1.6491.5% 93.9% 91.5% Expenses + Operating Expenses)

FIG. 153 depicts a cross-sectional representation of another embodimentof substantially horizontal heaters 412 positioned in a pattern withconsistent spacing in hydrocarbon layer 388 (similar to the heaterpattern in 144) in the Peace River formation. In the embodiment depictedin FIG. 153, there are 9 horizontal heaters 412 per producer well 206.FIG. 154 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment ofsubstantially horizontal heaters 412 positioned in a pattern withirregular spacing in hydrocarbon layer 388, with three rows of heatersin three heating zones 628A-C. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 154,vertical spacing between the different rows of heaters in heating zones628A-C is irregular. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 154, there are13 horizontal heaters 412 per producer well 206.

Heaters 412 in the embodiment depicted in FIG. 154 may employ a phasedheating process for heating in the Peace River formation that is similarto phased heating process for the embodiment depicted in FIG. 145 in theGrosmont formation. Heaters 412 in zone 628C may initiate first. Heaters412 in zone 628A may initiate at a later date (for example, ˜53 daysafter the heaters in zone 628C), followed by heaters 412 in zone 628B(for example, ˜93 days after the heaters in zone 628C). The optimizedheating pattern depicted in FIG. 154 demonstrated greater efficiencythan the heating pattern depicted in FIG. 153 (relative NPV was 5.3:1for FIG. 154: FIG. 153).

In some embodiments, when optimizing the heating of the portion of theformation, certain limiting variables are taken into consideration. Thepressure in the upper area of the portion of the formation may belimited. Imposing limits on the pressure in the upper portion of theformation may inhibit the overburden from pyrolyzation and allowingproducts from the treatment process to escape in an uncontrolled manner.Pressure in the upper area of the portion limited to less than or equalto about 1500 psi (about 10 MPa), about 1250 psi (about 8.6 MPa), about1000 psi (about 6.9 MPa), about 750 psi (about 5.2 MPa), or about 500psi (about 3.4 MPa). In some embodiments, pressure in the upper area ofthe portion of the formation may be maintained at about 750 psi (about5.2 MPa) or less.

In some embodiments, bottom-hole pressure may need to be maintainedgreater than or equal to a particular pressure. Bottom-hole pressure, insome examples, may need to be maintained during production at or aboveabout 250 psi (about 1.7 MPa), about 170 psi (about 1.2 MPa), about 115psi (about 800 kPa), or about 70 psi (about 480 kPa). In someembodiments, a desired bottom-hole pressure may be maintained at orabove about 115 psi (about 800 kPa). The minimum bottom-hole pressurerequired may be dependent on a number of factors, for example, type offormation or the type of hydrocarbons contained in the formation.

A downhole heater assembly may include 5, 10, 20, 40, or more heaterscoupled together. For example, a heater assembly may include between 10and 40 heaters. Heaters in a downhole heater assembly may be coupled inseries. In some embodiments, heaters in a heater assembly may be spacedfrom about 8 meters (about 25 feet) to about 60 meters (about 195 feet)apart. For example, heaters in a heater assembly may be spaced about 15meters (about 50 feet) apart. Spacing between heaters in a heaterassembly may be a function of heat transfer from the heaters to theformation. Spacing between heaters may be chosen to limit temperaturevariation along a length of a heater assembly to acceptable limits.Heaters in a heater assembly may include, but are not limited to,electrical heaters, flameless distributed combustors, naturaldistributed combustors, and/or oxidizers. In some embodiments, heatersin a downhole heater assembly may include only oxidizers.

Fuel may be supplied to oxidizers a fuel conduit. In some embodiments,the fuel for the oxidizers includes synthesis gas, non-condensable gasesproduced from treatment area of in situ heat treatment processes, air,enriched air, or mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, the fuelincludes synthesis gas (for example, a mixture that includes hydrogenand carbon monoxide) that was produced using an in situ heat treatmentprocess. In certain embodiments, the fuel may include natural gas mixedwith heavier components such as ethane, propane, butane, or carbonmonoxide. In some embodiments, the fuel and/or synthesis gas may includenon-combustible gases such as nitrogen. In some embodiments, the fuelcontains products from a coal or heavy oil gasification process. Thecoal or heavy oil gasification process may be an in situ process or anex situ process. After initiation of combustion of fuel and oxidantmixture in oxidizers, composition of the fuel may be varied to enhanceoperational stability of the oxidizers.

The non-condensable gases may include combustible gases (for example,hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, methane and other hydrocarbon gases) andnoncombustible gases (for example, carbon dioxide). The presence ofnoncombustible gases may inhibit coking of the fuel and/or may reducethe flame zone temperature of oxidizers when the fuel is used as fuelfor oxidizers of downhole oxidizer assemblies. The reduced flame zonetemperature may inhibit formation of NOx compounds and/or otherundesired combustion products by the oxidizers. Other components such aswater may be included in the fuel supplied to the burners. Combustion ofin situ heat treatment process gas may reduce and/or eliminate the needfor gas treatment facilities and/or the need to treat thenon-condensable portion of formation fluid produced using the in situheat treatment process to obtain pipeline gas and/or other gas products.Combustion of in situ heat treatment process gas in burners may createconcentrated carbon dioxide and/or SO_(x) effluents that may be used inother processes, sequestered and/or treated to remove undesiredcomponents.

In certain embodiments, fuel used to initiate combustion may be enrichedto decrease the temperature required for ignition or otherwisefacilitate startup of oxidizers. In some embodiments, hydrogen or otherhydrogen rich fluids may be used to enrich fuel initially supplied tothe oxidizers. After ignition of the oxidizers, enrichment of the fuelmay be stopped. In some embodiments, a portion or portions of a fuelconduit may include a catalytic surface (for example, a catalytic outersurface) to decrease an ignition temperature of fuel.

In some embodiments, oxygen is produced through the decomposition ofwater. For example, electrolysis of water produces oxygen and hydrogen.Using water as a source of oxygen provides a source of oxidant withminimal or no carbon dioxide emissions. The produced hydrogen may beused as a hydrogenation fluid for treating hydrocarbon fluids in situ orex situ, a fuel source and/or for other purposes. FIG. 155 depicts aschematic representation of an embodiment of a system for producingoxygen using electrolysis of water for use in an oxidizing fluidprovided to burners that heat treatment area 666. Water stream 668enters electrolysis unit 670. In electrolysis unit 670, current isapplied to water stream 668 and produces oxygen stream 672 and hydrogenstream 674. In some embodiments, electrolysis of water stream 668 isperformed at temperatures ranging from about 600° C. to about 1000° C.,from about 700° C. to about 950° C., or from 800° C. to about 900° C. Insome embodiments, electrolysis unit 670 is powered by nuclear energyand/or a solid oxide fuel cell and/or a molten salt fuel cell. The useof nuclear energy and/or a solid oxide fuel cell and/or a molten saltfuel cell provides a heat source with minimal and/or no carbon dioxideemissions. High temperature electrolysis may generate hydrogen andoxygen more efficiently than conventional electrolysis because energylosses resulting from the conversion of heat to electricity andelectricity to heat are avoided by directly utilizing the heat producedfrom the nuclear reactions without producing electricity. Oxygen stream672 mixes with mixed oxidizing fluid 676 and/or is mixed with oxidizingfluid 678. A portion or all of hydrogen stream 674 may be recycled toelectrolysis unit 670 and used as an energy source. A portion or all ofhydrogen stream 674 may be used for other purposes such as, but notlimited to, a fuel for burners and/or a hydrogen source for in situ orex situ hydrogenation of hydrocarbons.

Exhaust gas 680 from burners used to heat treatment area 666 may bedirected to exhaust treatment unit 682. Exhaust gas 680 may include, butis not limited to, carbon dioxide and/or SO_(X). In exhaust separationunit 682, carbon dioxide stream 684 is separated from SO_(x) stream 686.Separated carbon dioxide stream 684 may be mixed with diluent fluid 688,may be used as a carrier fluid for oxidizing fluid 678, may be used as adrive fluid for producing hydrocarbons, and/or may be sequestered.SO_(x) stream 686 may be treated using known SO_(X) treatment methods(for example, sent to a Claus plant). Formation fluid 212′ produced fromheat treatment area 666 may be mixed with formation fluid 212 from othertreatment areas and/or formation fluid 212′ may enter separation unit214. Separation unit 214 may separate the formation fluid into in situheat treatment process liquid stream 216, in situ heat treatment processgas 218, and aqueous stream 220. Gas separation unit 222 may remove oneor more components from in situ heat treatment process gas 218 toproduce fuel 690 and one or more other streams 692. Fuel 690 mayinclude, but is not limited to, hydrogen, sulfur compounds, hydrocarbonshaving a carbon number of at most 5, carbon oxides, nitrogen compounds,or mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, gas separation unit 222 useschemical and/or physical treatment systems to remove or reduce theamount of carbon dioxide in fuel 690. Fuel 690 may enter fuel conduit520 that provides fuel to oxidizers of oxidizer assemblies that heattreatment area 666.

In some embodiments, electrolysis unit 670 is powered by nuclear energy.Nuclear energy may be provided by a number of different types ofavailable nuclear reactors and nuclear reactors currently underdevelopment (for example, generation IV reactors). In some embodiments,nuclear reactors may include a self-regulating nuclear reactor.Self-regulating nuclear reactors may include a fissile metal hydridewhich functions as both fuel for the nuclear reaction as well as amoderator for the nuclear reaction. The nuclear reaction may bemoderated by the temperature driven mobility of the hydrogen isotopecontained in the hydride. Self-regulating nuclear reactors may producethermal power on the order of tens of megawatts per unit.Self-regulating nuclear reactors may operate at a maximum fueltemperature ranging from about 400° C. to about 900° C., from about 450°C. to about 800° C., and from about 500° C. to about 600° C.Self-regulating nuclear reactors have several advantages including, butnot limited to, a compact/modular design, ease of transport, and asimple cost effective design.

In some embodiments, nuclear reactors may include one or more very hightemperature reactors (VHTRs). VHTRs may use helium as a coolant to drivea gas turbine for treating hydrocarbon fluids in situ, poweringelectrolysis unit 670 and/or for other purposes. VHTRs may produce heatfor electrolysis units up to about 950° C. or more. In some embodiments,nuclear reactors may include a sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR). SFRsmay be designed on a smaller scale (for example, 50 MWe), and thereforeare more cost effective to manufacture on site for treating hydrocarbonfluids in situ, powering electrolysis units and/or for other purposes.SFRs may be of a modular design and potentially portable. SFRs mayproduce heat for electrolysis units ranging from about 500° C. to about600° C., from about 525° C. to about 575° C., or from 540° C. to about560° C.

In some embodiments, pebble bed reactors may be employed to provide heatfor electrolysis. Pebble bed reactors may produce up to about 165 MWe.Pebble bed reactors may produce heat for electrolysis units ranging fromabout 500° C. to about 1100° C., from about 800° C. to about 1000° C.,or from about 900° C. to about 950° C. In some embodiments, nuclearreactors may include supercritical-water-cooled reactors (SCWRs) basedat least in part on previous light water reactors (LWR) andsupercritical fossil-fired boilers. In some embodiments, SCWRs may beemployed to provide heat for electrolysis. SCWRs may produce heat forelectrolysis units ranging from about 400° C. to about 650° C., fromabout 450° C. to about 550° C., or from about 500° C. to about 550° C.

In some embodiments, nuclear reactors may include lead-cooled fastreactors (LFRs). In some embodiments, LFRs may be employed to provideheat for electrolysis. LFRs may be manufactured in a range of sizes,from modular systems to several hundred megawatt or more sized systems.LFRs may produce heat for electrolysis units ranging from about 400° C.to about 900° C., from about 500° C. to about 850° C., or from about550° C. to about 800° C.

In some embodiments, nuclear reactors may include molten salt reactors(MSRs). In some embodiments, MSRs may be employed to provide heat forelectrolysis. MSRs may include fissile, fertile, and fission isotopesdissolved in a molten fluoride salt with a boiling point of about 1,400°C. which function as both the reactor fuel and the coolant. MSRs mayproduce heat for electrolysis units ranging from about 400° C. to about900° C., from about 500° C. to about 850° C., or from about 600° C. toabout 800° C.

In some embodiments, pulverized coal is the fuel used to heat thesubsurface formation. The pulverized coal may be carried into thewellbores with a non-oxidizing fluid (for example, carbon dioxide and/ornitrogen). An oxidant may be mixed with the pulverized coal at severallocations in the wellbore. The oxidant may be air, oxygen enriched airand/or other types of oxidizing fluids. Igniters located at or near themixing locations initiate oxidation of the coal and oxidant. Theigniters may be catalytic igniters, glow plugs, spark plugs, and/orelectrical heaters (for example, an insulated conductor temperaturelimited heater with heating sections located at mixing locations ofpulverized coal and oxidant) that are able to initiate oxidation of theoxidant with the pulverized coal.

The particles of the pulverized coal may be small enough to pass throughflow orifices and achieve rapid combustion in the oxidant. Thepulverized coal may have a particle size distribution from about 1micron to about 300 microns, from about 5 microns to about 150 microns,or from about 10 microns to about 100 microns. Other pulverized coalparticle size distributions may also be used. At 600° C., the time toburn the volatiles in pulverized coal with a particle size distributionfrom about 10 microns to about 100 microns may be about one second.

In certain embodiments, a heater is located in a u-shaped wellbore or anL-shaped wellbore. The heater may include a heating section that ismoved during treatment of the formation. Moving the heating sectionduring treatment of the formation allows the heating section to be usedover a wide area of the formation. Using the movable heating section mayallow the heating section (and/or heater) to be significantly shorter inlength than the length of the wellbore. The shorter heating section mayreduce equipment costs and/or operating costs of the heater as comparedto a longer heating section (for example, a heating section that has alength nearly as long as the length of the wellbore).

FIG. 156 depicts an embodiment of heater 412 with heating section 694located in a u-shaped wellbore. Heater 412 is located in opening 386. Incertain embodiments, opening 386 is a u-shaped opening with asubstantially horizontal or inclined section in hydrocarbon layer 388below overburden 400. Heater 412 may be a u-shaped heater with ends thatextend out of both legs of the wellbore. In certain embodiments, heater412 is an electrical resistance heater (a heater that provides heat byelectrical resistance heating when energized with electrical current).In some embodiments, heater 412 is an oxidation heater (for example, aheater that oxidizes (combusts) fluids to produce heat). In certainembodiments, heater 412 is a circulating fluid heater such as a moltensalt circulating heater.

In certain embodiments, heater 412 includes heating section 694. Heatingsection 694 may be the portion of heater 412 that provides heat tohydrocarbon layer 388. In certain embodiments, heating section 694 isthe portion of heater 412 that has a higher electrical resistance thanthe rest of the heater such that the heating section is the only portionof the heater that provides substantial heat output to hydrocarbon layer388. In some embodiments, heating section 694 is the portion of theheater that includes a downhole oxidizer (for example, downhole burner)or a plurality of downhole oxidizers. Other portions of heater 412 maybe non-heating portions of the heater (for example, lead-in or lead-outsections of the heater) or portions of the heater that providenegligible heat output.

In certain embodiments, heater 412 is similar in length to thehorizontal portion of opening 386 and heating section 694 is the portionof heater 412 shown in FIG. 156. Thus, heating section 694 is short inlength compared to the horizontal portion of opening 386. In someembodiments, heating section 694 extends along the entire horizontalportion of heater 412 (or nearly the entire horizontal portion of theheater) and the heater is short in length compared to the horizontalportion of opening 386 such that the heating section is shorter inlength than the horizontal portion of the opening.

In some embodiments, heating section 694 is at most ½ the length of thehorizontal portion of opening 386, at most ¼ the length of thehorizontal portion of opening 386, or at most ⅕ the length of thehorizontal portion of opening 386. For example, the horizontal portionof opening 386 in hydrocarbon layer 388 may be between about 1500 m andabout 3000 m in length and heating section 694 may be between about 300m and about 500 m in length.

Having shorter heating section 694 allows heat to be provided to a smallportion of hydrocarbon layer 388. The portion of hydrocarbon layer 388heated by heating section 694 may be first volume 696. First volume 696may be created around heater 412 proximate heating section 694.

In certain embodiments, heater 412 and heating section 694 are moved toprovide heat to another portion of the formation. FIG. 157 depictsheater 412 with heating section 694 moved to heat second volume 698. Insome embodiments, heating section 694 is moved by pulling heater 412from one end of opening 386 (for example, pulling the heater from theleft end of the opening, as shown in FIG. 157). In certain embodiments,heater 412 and heating section 694 are moved further to provide heat tothird volume 700, as shown in FIG. 158.

In certain embodiments, first volume 696, second volume 698, and thirdvolume 700 are heated sequentially from the first volume to the thirdvolume. In some embodiments, portions of the volumes may overlapdepending on the moving rate (movement speed) of heater 412 and heatingsection 694. In certain embodiments, heater 412 and heating section 694are moved at a controlled rate. For example, heater 412 and heatingsection 694 may be moved after treating first volume 696 for a selectedperiod of time or after a selected temperature is reached in the firstvolume.

Moving heater 412 and heating section 694 at the controlled rate mayprovide controlled heating in hydrocarbon layer 388. In someembodiments, the moving rate is controlled to control the amount ofmobilization in hydrocarbon layer 388, first volume 696, second volume698, and/or third volume 700. In some embodiments, the moving rate iscontrolled to control the amount of pyrolyzation in hydrocarbon layer388, first volume 696, second volume 698, and/or third volume 700. Themovement rate when mobilizing may be faster than the moving rate whenpyrolyzing as more heat needs to be provided in a selected volume of theformation to result in pyrolyzation of hydrocarbons in the selectedvolume. In general, the moving rate of heater 412 and heating section694 is controlled to achieve desired heating results for treatment ofhydrocarbon layer 388. The moving rate may be determined, for example,by assessing treatment of hydrocarbon layer 388 using simulations and/orother calculations.

In certain embodiments, heater 412 is a u-shaped heater that is moved(for example, pulled) through u-shaped opening 386, as shown in FIGS.156-158. In some embodiments, heater 412 is an L-shaped or J-shapedheater that is moved through a u-shaped opening (for example, the heatermay be shaped like the heater depicted in FIG. 158). The L-shaped orJ-shaped heater may be moved by either pulling or pushing the heaterfrom either end of the u-shaped opening.

In some embodiments, heater 412 is an L-shaped or J-shaped heater thatis moved through an L-shaped or J-shaped opening. FIGS. 159-161 depictmovement of L-shaped or J-shaped heater 412 as the heater is movedthrough opening 386 to heat first volume 696, second volume 698, andthird volume 700.

FIG. 162 depicts an embodiment with two heaters 412A, 412B located inu-shaped opening 386. Heaters 412A, 412B may have heating sections 694A,694B, respectively. Heaters 412A, 412B and heating sections 694A, 694Bmay be moved (pulled) away from each other, as shown by the arrows inFIG. 162. Moving heating sections 694A, 694B in opposite directions maycreate heated volumes in hydrocarbon layer 388 on each side of themiddle of opening 386. In some embodiments, the heated volumes createdby heating section 694A may substantially mirror the heated volumescreated by heating section 694B. Thus, mirrored heated volumes may besequentially created going in opposite directions from the middle ofopening 386 by moving heating sections 694A, 694B away from each otherat a controlled rate.

In certain embodiments, movable heaters allow for closer spacing betweenheaters during early phases of in situ heat treatment without increasingthe number of wellbores in the formation by overlapping heating sectionsduring the early phases of treatment. FIG. 163 depicts a top view oftreatment area 666 treated using non-overlapping heating sections 694A,694B in heaters 412A, 412B. As shown in FIG. 163, heaters 412A, 412B areL-shaped or J-shaped heaters located substantially horizontal or at anincline in the formation. Heaters 412A, 412B extend from build sections702A, 702B, respectively.

In an embodiment, heating sections 694A, 694B heat in two phases. Thesolid sections of heaters 412A, 412B, shown as heating sections 694A,694B in FIG. 163, are the first phase of heating. The solid sectionsprovide heat in the center portion of treatment area 666. Heatingsections 694A, 694B in the first phase are located end-to-end (the endsof the heating sections abut but do not touch) and do not overlap, asshown in FIG. 163. The cross-hatched sections of heaters 412A, 412B arethe second phase of heating. In the second phase of heating, heatingsections 694A, 694B move into the cross-hatched sections of heaters412A, 412B to heat the edge portions of treatment area 666. In theembodiment depicted in FIG. 163, 18 heaters 412A, 412B are used to heattreatment area 666.

FIG. 164 depicts a top view of treatment area 666 treated usingoverlapping heating sections 694A, 694B in the first phase of heatingusing heaters 412A, 412B. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 164,heaters 412A, 412B heat treatment area 666 in two phases such as in theembodiment depicted in FIG. 163. In the first phase, however, heatingsections 694A, 694B overlap and are located adjacent to each other, asshown in FIG. 164. Thus, heating sections 694A, 694B (and heaters 412A,412B) have closer spacing during the first phase in the embodimentdepicted in FIG. 164 than the embodiment depicted in FIG. 163. Forexample, heating sections 694A, 694B shown in FIG. 164 have half thespacing of the heating sections shown in FIG. 163. In addition, heatprovided by heating sections 694A during the first phase in theembodiment depicted in FIG. 164 overlaps with heat provided by heatingsections 694B, which also increases the heat provided to the centerportion of treatment area 666. The closer spacing may accelerate heatingof the center portion of treatment area 666 without increasing thenumber of heaters 412A, 412B in the treatment area (there are still 18heaters in the embodiment depicted in FIG. 164). In addition, heatprovided by heating sections 694A during the first phase in theembodiment depicted in FIG. 164 overlaps with heat provided by heatingsections 694B, which increases the heat provided to the center portionof treatment area 666. During the second phase of heating, heatingsections 694A, 694B (the cross-hatched sections) in the embodimentdepicted in FIG. 164 may have similar spacing as the second phaseheating sections in the embodiment depicted in FIG. 163.

As shown in the embodiment depicted in FIG. 164, build section 702B maybe moved closer to build section 702A in order to achieve the closerheater spacing in the first phase of heating. Thus, the volume oftreatment area 666 heated during the two phases of heating may besmaller than the volume heated in the embodiment depicted in FIG. 163.In certain embodiments, additional heaters may be placed in remainingvolume 704 of treatment area 666. These additional heaters may heatremaining volume 704 such that a similar volume of treatment area 666 isheated in the embodiment depicted in FIG. 164 as the volume heated inthe embodiment depicted in FIG. 163. The additional heaters used to heatremaining volume 704, depicted in FIG. 164, may be placed in theformation at later times during treatment of the formation. Theadditional heaters may have a discounted cost compared to heaters formedin the formation at earlier times.

In some embodiments, fast fluidized transport line systems may be usedfor subsurface heating. Fast fluidized transport line systems may havesignificantly higher overall energy efficiency as compared to usingelectrical heating. The systems may have high heat transfer efficiency.Low value fuel (for example, bitumen or pulverized coal) may be used asthe heat source. Solid transport line circulation is commercially proventechnology having relatively reliable operation.

Fast fluidized transport systems may include one or more combustionunits, wellbores, a treatment area, and piping to transport fluidizedmaterial from the combustion units through the wellbores to heat thetreatment area. In some embodiments, one or more of combustion unitsused to heat the formation are furnaces, nuclear reactors, or other hightemperature heat sources. Such combustion units heat fluidized materialthat passes through the combustion units. Each combustion unit mayprovide hot fluidized material to a large number of u-shaped wellbores.For example, one combustion unit may supply hot fluidized material to 20or more u-shaped wellbores. In some embodiments, the u-shaped wellboresare formed so that the surface footprint has long rows of inlet and exitlegs of u-shaped wellbores. The exit legs and inlet legs of theseu-shaped wellbores are located in adjacent rows. Additional fluidizedtransport systems would be located on the same row to supply all of theu-shaped wellbores on the row. Also, additional fluidized transportsystems would be positioned on adjacent rows to supply inlet legs andoutlet legs of the adjacent rows.

Fluidized material may include coal particles (for example, pulverizedcoal), other hydrocarbon or carbon containing material (for example,bitumen and coke), and heat carrier particles. The heat carrierparticles may include, but are not limited to, sand, silica, ceramicparticles, waste fluidized catalytic cracking catalyst, other particlesused for heat transfer, or mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, theparticle range distribution of the fluidized material may span frombetween about 5 and 200 microns.

A portion of the hydrocarbon content in fluidized material may combustand/or pyrolyze in the combustion units. Fluidized material may stillhave a significant carbon (coke) and/or hydrocarbon content afterpassing through the combustion unit. The oxidant may react with thecarbon and/or hydrocarbons in the fluidized material in the u-shapedconduits. The combustion of hydrocarbons and carbon in the fluidizedmaterial may maintain a high temperature of the fluidized materialand/or generate heat that transfers to the formation.

Gas lifting may facilitate transport of the fluidized material in theu-shaped conduits. Multiple valves in the outlet legs may allow entry oflift gas into the outlet legs to transport the fluidized material to thetreatment area. In some embodiments, the lift gas is air. Other gasesmay be used as the lift gas.

In some in situ heat treatment process embodiments, a circulation systemis used to heat the formation. Using the circulation system for in situheat treatment of a hydrocarbon containing formation may reduce energycosts for treating the formation, reduce emissions from the treatmentprocess, and/or facilitate heating system installation. In certainembodiments, the circulation system is a closed loop circulation system.FIG. 165 depicts a schematic representation of a system for heating aformation using a circulation system. The system may be used to heathydrocarbons that are relatively deep in the ground and that are informations that are relatively large in extent. In some embodiments, thehydrocarbons may be 100 m, 200 m, 300 m or more below the surface. Thecirculation system may also be used to heat hydrocarbons that areshallower in the ground. The hydrocarbons may be in formations thatextend lengthwise up to 1000 m, 3000 m, 5000 m, or more. The heaters ofthe circulation system may be positioned relative to adjacent heaterssuch that superposition of heat between heaters of the circulationsystem allows the temperature of the formation to be raised at leastabove the boiling point of aqueous formation fluid in the formation.

In some embodiments, heaters 412 are formed in the formation by drillinga first wellbore and then drilling a second wellbore that connects withthe first wellbore. Piping may be positioned in the u-shaped wellbore toform u-shaped heater 412. Heaters 412 are connected to heat transferfluid circulation system 706 by piping. In some embodiments, the heatersare positioned in triangular patterns. In some embodiments, otherregular or irregular patterns are used. Production wells and/orinjection wells may also be located in the formation. The productionwells and/or the injection wells may have long, substantially horizontalsections similar to the heating portions of heaters 412, or theproduction wells and/or injection wells may be otherwise oriented (forexample, the wells may be vertically oriented wells, or wells thatinclude one or more slanted portions).

As depicted in FIG. 165, heat transfer fluid circulation system 706 mayinclude heat supply 708, first heat exchanger 710, second heat exchanger712, and fluid movers 714. Heat supply 708 heats the heat transfer fluidto a high temperature. Heat supply 708 may be a furnace, solarcollector, chemical reactor, nuclear reactor, fuel cell, and/or otherhigh temperature source able to supply heat to the heat transfer fluid.If the heat transfer fluid is a gas, fluid movers 714 may becompressors. If the heat transfer fluid is a liquid, fluid movers 714may be pumps.

After exiting formation 492, the heat transfer fluid passes throughfirst heat exchanger 710 and second heat exchanger 712 to fluid movers714. First heat exchanger 710 transfers heat between heat transfer fluidexiting formation 492 and heat transfer fluid exiting fluid movers 714to raise the temperature of the heat transfer fluid that enters heatsupply 708 and reduce the temperature of the fluid exiting formation492. Second heat exchanger 712 further reduces the temperature of theheat transfer fluid. In some embodiments, second heat exchanger 712includes or is a storage tank for the heat transfer fluid.

Heat transfer fluid passes from second heat exchanger 712 to fluidmovers 714. Fluid movers 714 may be located before heat supply 708 sothat the fluid movers do not have to operate at a high temperature.

In an embodiment, the heat transfer fluid is carbon dioxide. Heat supply708 is a furnace that heats the heat transfer fluid to a temperature ina range from about 700° C. to about 920° C., from about 770° C. to about870° C., or from about 800° C. to about 850° C. In an embodiment, heatsupply 708 heats the heat transfer fluid to a temperature of about 820°C. The heat transfer fluid flows from heat supply 708 to heaters 412.Heat transfers from heaters 412 to formation 492 adjacent to theheaters. The temperature of the heat transfer fluid exiting formation492 may be in a range from about 350° C. to about 580° C., from about400° C. to about 530° C., or from about 450° C. to about 500° C. In anembodiment, the temperature of the heat transfer fluid exiting formation492 is about 480° C. The metallurgy of the piping used to form heattransfer fluid circulation system 706 may be varied to significantlyreduce costs of the piping. High temperature steel may be used from heatsupply 708 to a point where the temperature is sufficiently low so thatless expensive steel can be used from that point to first heat exchanger710. Several different steel grades may be used to form the piping ofheat transfer fluid circulation system 706.

In some embodiments, solar salt (for example, a salt containing 60 wt %NaNO₃ and 40 wt % KNO₃) is used as the heat transfer fluid in thecirculated fluid system. Solar salt may have a melting point of about230° C. and an upper working temperature limit of about 565° C. In someembodiments, LiNO₃ (for example, between about 10% by weight and about30% by weight LiNO₃) may be added to the solar salt to produce tertiarysalt mixtures with wider operating temperature ranges and lower meltingtemperatures with only a slight decrease in the maximum workingtemperature as compared to solar salt. The lower melting temperature ofthe tertiary salt mixtures may decrease the preheating requirements andallow the use of pressurized water and/or pressurized brine as a heattransfer fluid for preheating the piping of the circulation system. Thecorrosion rates of the metal of the heaters due to the tertiary saltcompositions at 550° C. is comparable to the corrosion rate of the metalof the heaters due to solar salt at 565° C. TABLE 5 shows melting pointsand upper limits for solar salt and tertiary salt mixtures. Aqueoussolutions of tertiary salt mixtures may transition into a molten saltupon removal of water without solidification, thus allowing the moltensalt to be provided and/or stored as aqueous solutions.

TABLE 5 Upper working temperature NO₃ Composition of NO₃ Melting Point(° C.) of limit (° C.) Salt Salt (weight %) NO₃ salt of NO₃ salt Na:K60:40 230 600 Li:Na:K 12:18:70 200 550 Li:Na:K 20:28:52 150 550 Li:Na:K27:33:40 160 550 Li:Na:K 30:18:52 120 550

In certain embodiments, heat supply 708 is a furnace that heats the heattransfer fluid to a temperature of about 560° C. The return temperatureof the heat transfer fluid may be from about 350° C. to about 450° C.Piping from heat transfer fluid circulation system 706 may be insulatedand/or heat traced to facilitate startup and to ensure fluid flow.

In some embodiments, vertical, slanted, or L-shaped wellbores are usedinstead of u-shaped wellbores (for example, wellbores that have anentrance at a first location and an exit at another location). FIG. 166Adepicts L-shaped heater 412. Heater 412 may be coupled to heat transferfluid circulation system 706 and may include inlet conduit 716, andoutlet conduit 718. Heat transfer fluid circulation system 706 maysupply heat transfer fluid to multiple heaters. Heat transfer fluid fromheat transfer fluid circulation system 706 may flow down inlet conduit716 and back up outlet conduit 718. Inlet conduit 716 and outlet conduit718 may be insulated through overburden 400. In some embodiments, inletconduit 716 is insulated through overburden 400 and hydrocarboncontaining layer 388 to inhibit undesired heat transfer between ingoingand outgoing heat transfer fluid.

In some embodiments, portions of wellbore 490 adjacent to overburden 400are larger than portions of the wellbore adjacent to hydrocarboncontaining layer 388. Having a larger opening adjacent to the overburdenmay allow for accommodation of insulation used to insulate inlet conduit716 and/or outlet conduit 718. Some heat loss to the overburden from thereturn flow may not affect the efficiency significantly, especially whenthe heat transfer fluid is molten salt or another fluid that needs to beheated to remain a liquid. The heated overburden adjacent to heater 412may maintain the heat transfer fluid as a liquid for a significant timeshould circulation of heat transfer fluid stop. Having some allowancefor heat transfer to overburden 400 may eliminate the need for expensiveinsulation systems between outlet conduit 718 and the overburden. Insome embodiments, insulative cement is used between overburden 400 andoutlet conduit 718.

For vertical, slanted, or L-shaped heaters, the wellbores may be drilledlonger than needed to accommodate non-energized heaters (for example,installed but inactive heaters). Thermal expansion of the heaters afterenergization may cause portions of the heaters to move into the extralength of the wellbores designed to accommodate the thermal expansion ofthe heaters. For L-shaped heaters, remaining drilling fluid and/orformation fluid in the wellbore may facilitate movement of the heaterdeeper into the wellbore as the heater expands during preheating and/orheating with heat transfer fluid.

For vertical or slanted wellbores, the wellbores may be drilled deeperthan needed to accommodate the non-energized heaters. When the heater ispreheated and/or heated with the heat transfer fluid, the heater mayexpand into the extra depth of the wellbore. In some embodiments, anexpansion sleeve may be attached at the end of the heater to ensureavailable space for thermal expansion in case of unstable boreholes.

In some embodiments, a liner may be used in a wellbore and/or be coupledto a heater to inhibit fluids from mixing with circulating molten salts.In some embodiments, the liner may inhibit hydrocarbons from mixing witha heat transfer fluid (for example, one or more molten salts). FIG.166B, depicts heater 412 with liner 1428. Liner 1428 may include one ormore materials that are chemically resistant to corrosive materials (forexample, metal or ceramic based materials).

As shown in FIG. 166B, liner 1428 is positioned in a wellbore. In someembodiments, liner 1428 may be placed in the wellbore or the wellboremay be coated with chemically resistant material prior to positioningheater 412. In some embodiments, the liner may be coupled to thecirculating molten salt heater. In some embodiments, the liner mayinclude a coating on either the inner and/or outer surface of one ormore of the conduits forming a circulating molten salt heater. In someembodiments, the liner may include a conduit substantially surroundingat least a portion of the conduit. In some embodiments, piping includesa liner that is resistant to corrosion by the fluid.

FIG. 167 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of aportion of vertical heater 412. Heat transfer fluid circulation system706 may provide heat transfer fluid to inlet conduit 716 of heater 412.Heat transfer fluid circulation system 706 may receive heat transferfluid from outlet conduit heat 718. Inlet conduit 716 may be secured tooutlet conduit 718 by welds 720. Inlet conduit 716 may includeinsulating sleeve 722. Insulating sleeve 722 may be formed of a numberof sections. Each section of insulating sleeve 722 for inlet conduit 716is able to accommodate the thermal expansion caused by the temperaturedifference between the temperature of the inlet conduit and thetemperature outside the insulating sleeve. Change in length of inletconduit 716 and insulation sleeve 722 due to thermal expansion isaccommodated in outlet conduit 718.

Outlet conduit 718 may include insulating sleeve 722′. Insulating sleeve722′ may end near the boundary between overburden 400 and hydrocarbonlayer 388. In some embodiments, insulating sleeve 722′ is installedusing a coiled tubing rig. An upper first portion of insulating sleeve722′ may be secured to outlet conduit 718 above or near wellhead 392 byweld 720. Heater 412 may be supported in wellhead 392 by a couplingbetween the outer support member of insulating sleeve 722′ and thewellhead. The outer support member of insulating sleeve 722′ may havesufficient strength to support heater 412.

In some embodiments, insulating sleeve 722′ includes a second portion(insulating sleeve portion 722″) that is separate and lower than thefirst portion of insulating sleeve 722′. Insulating sleeve portion 722″may be secured to outlet conduit 718 by welds 720 or other types ofseals that can withstand high temperatures below packer 724. Welds 720between insulating sleeve portion 722″ and outlet conduit 718 mayinhibit formation fluid from passing between the insulating sleeve andthe outlet conduit. During heating, differential thermal expansionbetween the cooler outer surface and the hotter inner surface ofinsulating sleeve 722′ may cause separation between the first portion ofthe insulating sleeve and the second portion of the insulating sleeve(insulating sleeve portion 722″). This separation may occur adjacent tothe overburden portion of heater 412 above packer 724. Insulating cementbetween casing 398 and the formation may further inhibit heat loss tothe formation and improve the overall energy efficiency of the system.

Packer 724 may be a polished bore receptacle. Packer 724 may be fixed tocasing 398 of wellbore 490. In some embodiments, packer 724 is 1000 m ormore below the surface. Packer 724 may be located at a depth above 1000m, if desired. Packer 724 may inhibit formation fluid from flowing fromthe heated portion of the formation up the wellbore to wellhead 392.Packer 724 may allow movement of insulating sleeve portion 722″downwards to accommodate thermal expansion of heater 412.

In some embodiments, wellhead 392 includes fixed seal 726. Fixed seal726 may be a second seal that inhibits formation fluid from reaching thesurface through wellbore 490 of heater 412.

FIG. 168 depicts a schematic representation of another embodiment of aportion of vertical heater 412 in wellbore 490. The embodiment depictedin FIG. 168 is similar to the embodiment depicted in FIG. 167, but fixedseal 726 is located adjacent to overburden 400, and sliding seal 728 islocated in wellhead 392. The portion of insulating sleeve 722′ fromfixed seal 726 to wellhead 392 is able to expand upward out of thewellhead to accommodate thermal expansion. The portion of heater locatedbelow fixed seal 726 is able to expand into the excess length ofwellbore 490 to accommodate thermal expansion.

In some embodiments, the heater includes a flow switcher. The flowswitcher may allow the heat transfer fluid from the circulation systemto flow down through the overburden in the inlet conduit of the heater.The return flow from the heater may flow upwards through the annularregion between the inlet conduit and the outlet conduit. The flowswitcher may change the downward flow from the inlet conduit to theannular region between the outlet conduit and the inlet conduit. Theflow switcher may also change the upward flow from the inlet conduit tothe annular region. The use of the flow switcher may allow the heater tooperate at a higher temperature adjacent to the treatment area withoutincreasing the initial temperature of the heat transfer fluid providedto the heaters.

For vertical, slanted, or L-shaped heaters where the flow of heattransfer fluid is directed down the inlet conduit and returns throughthe annular region between the inlet conduit and the outlet conduit, atemperature gradient may form in the heater with the hottest portionbeing located at a distal end of the heater. For L-shaped heaters,horizontal portions of a set of first heaters may be alternated with thehorizontal portions of a second set of heaters. The hottest portionsused to heat the formation of the first set of heaters may be adjacentto the coldest portions used to heat the formation of the second set ofheaters, while the hottest portions used to heat the formation of thesecond set of heaters are adjacent to the coldest portions used to heatthe formation of the first set of heaters. For vertical or slantedheaters, flow switchers in selected heaters may allow the heaters to bearranged with the hottest portions used to heat the formation of firstheaters adjacent to coldest portions used to heat the formation ofsecond heaters. Having hottest portions used to heat the formation ofthe first set of heaters adjacent to coldest portions used to heat theformation of the second set of heaters may allow for more uniformheating of the formation.

In certain embodiments, treatment areas in a formation are treated inpatterns (for example, regular or irregular patterns). FIG. 169 depictsa schematic representation of a corridor pattern system used to treattreatment area 730. Heat transfer circulation systems 706, 706′ may bepositioned on each side of treatment area 730. Inlet wellheads 732 andoutlet wellheads 734 of subsurface heaters 412 may be positioned in rowsalong each side of the treatment area. Although one row of wellheads isdepicted on each side of treatment area 730, sufficient wells may beformed in the formation such that heaters 412 in the formation form athree dimensional pattern in the treatment area with well spacings thatallow for superposition of heat from adjacent heaters. Hot heat transferfluid from circulation system 706 flows through manifolds to inletwellheads 732 on the first side of treatment area 730. The heat transferfluid passes through heaters 412 to outlet wellbores 734 on the secondside of treatment area 730. Heat is transferred from the heat transferfluid to treatment area 730 as the heat transfer fluid travels frominlet wellheads 732 to outlet wellheads 734. The heat transfer fluidpasses from outlet wellheads 734 through manifolds to heat transferfluid circulation system 706′ on the second side of treatment area 730.Additional corridor patterns above, below, and/or to the sides oftreatment area 730 may be processed during or after in heat situtreatment of treatment area 730.

FIG. 170 depicts a schematic representation of a radial pattern systemused to treat treatment area 730. Treatment area 730 may be an annularregion located between inlet wellheads 732 and outlet wellheads 734.Central heat transfer fluid circulation system 706 may be positionednear to or on a first side (for example, at or near the center or on theinside) of treatment area 730. Outer heat transfer fluid circulationsystems 706′ may be positioned near to or on a second side (for example,on the perimeter) of treatment area 730. Inlet wellheads 732 and outletwellheads 734 of subsurface heaters 412 may be positioned in rings alongeach side of the treatment area. Although one ring of inlet wellheads732 and one ring of outlet wellheads 734 is depicted on each side oftreatment area 730, sufficient wells may be formed in the formation suchthat heaters 412 in the formation form a three-dimensional pattern inthe treatment area with well spacings that allow for superposition ofheat between adjacent heaters. Hot heat transfer fluid from central heattransfer fluid circulation system 706 flows through manifolds to inletwellheads on the first side of treatment area 730. The heat transferfluid passes through heaters 412 to outlet wellbores 734 on the secondside of treatment area 730. Heat is transferred from the heat transferfluid to the treatment area as the heat transfer fluid travels frominlet wellheads 732 to outlet wellheads 734. The heat transfer fluidpasses from outlet wellheads 734 on the second side of treatment area730 through manifolds to outer heat transfer fluid circulation systems706′ on the second side of the treatment area. Heat transfer fluidheated by outer heat transfer fluid circulation systems 706′ passesthrough manifolds to inlet wellheads 732 on the second side of thetreatment area. The heat transfer fluid passes through heaters 412 tooutlet wellheads 734 on the first side of treatment area 730. The heattransfer fluid flows through manifolds to central heat transfer fluidcirculation system 706. In certain embodiments, additional radialpatterns are formed at other locations in the formation.

In some embodiments, only a portion of the ring of treatment area 730 istreated. In some embodiments, the entire ring of the treatment area, ora portion of the treatment area is treated in sections. For example, oneor more central circulation systems 706 may supply heat transfer fluidto a first set of heaters. The first set of heaters, along with a secondset of return heaters may treat a first section of about one eighth (or45° arc) of the treatment area. Other section sizes may also be chosen.The heat transfer fluid from central circulation systems 706 may bereceived by one or more outer circulation systems 706′. Outercirculation systems 706′ may return heat transfer fluid to centralcirculation systems 706. After completion of heating of the firstsection of treatment area 730, an adjacent section to the first sectionor another section of the treatment area not adjacent to the firstsection may be treated. Outer circulation systems 706′ may be mobilesuch that the outer circulation systems can be used to treat differentsections of the treatment area. In some embodiments, one or moreproduction wells for a particular section may be used to produceformation fluid during the treatment of another section.

Due to the radial layout of heaters 412, the heater density and/or heatinput per volume of formation increases from the second side oftreatment area 730 towards the first side of the treatment area. Theheater density and/or heat input per volume change may establish atemperature gradient through treatment area 730 with the averagetemperature of the treatment area increasing from the second side of thetreatment area towards the first side of the treatment area (forexample, from the perimeter of the treatment area towards the center ofthe treatment area). For example, the average temperature near the firstside of treatment area 730 may be about 300° C. to about 350° C. whilethe average temperature near the second side may be about 180° C. toabout 220° C. The higher temperature near the first side of treatmentarea 730 may result in the mobilization of hydrocarbons towards thesecond side of the treatment area.

FIG. 171 depicts a plan view of an embodiment of wellbore openings on afirst side of treatment area 730. Heat transfer fluid entries 736 intothe formation alternate with heat transfer fluid exits 738. Alternatingheat transfer fluid entries 736 and heat transfer fluid exits 738 mayallow for more uniform heating of the hydrocarbons in treatment area730.

In some embodiments, piping and surface facilities for the circulationsystem may allow the direction of heat transfer fluid flow through theformation to be changed. Changing the direction of heat transfer fluidflow through the formation allows each end of a u-shaped wellbore toalternately receive the heat transfer fluid at the hottest temperatureof the heat transfer fluid for a period of time, which may result inmore uniform heating of the formation. The direction of heat transferfluid may be changed at desired time intervals. The desired timeinterval may be, for example, about a year, about six months, aboutthree months, about two months, or any other desired time interval.

In some embodiments, a liquid heat transfer fluid is used as the heattransfer fluid. The liquid heat transfer fluid may be natural orsynthetic oil, molten metal, molten salt, or another type of hightemperature heat transfer fluid. A liquid heat transfer fluid may allowfor smaller diameter piping and reduced pumping and/or compressioncosts. In some embodiments, the piping is made of a material resistantto corrosion by the liquid heat transfer fluid. In some embodiments, thepiping is lined with a material that is resistant to corrosion by theliquid heat transfer fluid. For example, if the heat transfer fluid is amolten fluoride salt, the piping may include nickel liner (for example,a 10 mil thick nickel liner). Such piping may be formed by roll bondinga nickel strip onto a strip of the piping material (for example,stainless steel), rolling the composite strip, and longitudinallywelding the composite strip to form the piping. Other techniques knownin the art may also be used. Nickel corrosion by the molten fluoridesalt may be at most 1 mil per year at a temperature of about 840° C.

In some embodiments, two or more heat transfer fluids (for example, air,superheated steam, synthetic heat transfer oils, and/or molten salts)are employed to transfer thermal energy to and/or from a hydrocarboncontaining formation. In some embodiments, a first heat transfer fluidis a synthetic heat transfer oil (for example, DowTherm®A manufacturedby Dow Chemical Company, U.S.A). A first heat transfer fluid may beheated, for example, with a nuclear reactor or a furnace. The first heattransfer fluid may be circulated through a plurality of wellbores in atleast a portion of the formation in order to heat the portion of theformation. The first heat transfer fluid may have a first temperaturerange in which the first heat transfer fluid is in a liquid form andstable. Temperature of the first heat transfer fluid may be in a rangefrom about 150° C. to about 400° C. An inlet of the piping may be heatedto a predetermined temperature (for example, heated to a temperature ina range from about 400° C. to about 600° C.). The first heat transferfluid may be circulated through the portion of the formation until theportion reaches a temperature in a desired temperature range (forexample, about 230° C. or a temperature towards the upper end of thefirst heat transfer fluid temperature range). The first heat transferfluid may be circulated through the piping in the formation at, forexample, a rate of 3 kg/sec to 15 kg/sec, a rate of 4 kg/sec to 12kg/sec, or a rate of 5 kg/sec to 10 kg/sec. A flow rate of the firstheat transfer fluid may be selected based on, for example, the number ofdays desired for preheating (for example, 10 days, 50 days, or 120 days)and the inlet temperature of the piping. For example, air may becirculated at 6.2 kg/sec through a 5″ diameter u-shaped heater having aninlet temperature of 600° C. to preheat a section of a formation to 230°C. in 10 days. Circulating synthetic heat transfer oil at a flow rate of4.3 kg/sec may preheat the section in the same period of time. Topreheat the section to 230° C. in 10 days using superheated steam as theheat transfer fluid, a flow rate of 3.2 kg/sec may be used.

A second heat transfer fluid may be heated (for example, with a nuclearreactor). The second heat transfer fluid may have a second temperaturerange in which the second heat transfer fluid is in a liquid form andstable. An upper end of the second temperature range may be hotter andabove the first temperature range. A lower end of the second temperaturerange may overlap with the first temperatures range. The second heattransfer fluid may be circulated through the plurality of wellbores inthe portion of the formation in order to heat the portion of theformation to a higher temperature than is possible with the first heattransfer fluid.

The advantages of using two or more different heat transfer fluids mayinclude, for example, the ability to heat the portion of the formationto a much higher temperature than is normally possible while using othersupplementary heating methods (for example, electric heaters) as littleas possible to increase overall efficiency (for example, electricheaters). Using two or more different heat transfer fluids may benecessary if a heat transfer fluid with a large enough temperature rangecapable of heating the portion of the formation to the desiredtemperature is not available. Heating with two or more heat transferfluids may deliver greater than 1000 W/ft of energy to the formation,thus allowing the formation to be preheated in a relatively short periodof time (for example, less than 120 days).

In some embodiments, after the portion of the hydrocarbon containingformation has been heated to a desired temperature range, the first heattransfer fluid may be recirculated through the portion of the formation.The first heat transfer fluid may not be heated before recirculationthrough the formation (other than heating the heat transfer fluid to themelting point if necessary in the case of molten salts). The first heattransfer fluid may be heated using the thermal energy already stored inthe portion of the formation from prior in situ heat treatment of theformation. The first heat transfer fluid may then be transferred out ofthe formation such that the thermal energy recovered by the first heattransfer fluid may be reused for some other process in the portion ofthe formation, in a second portion of the formation, and/or in anadditional formation.

In some embodiments, the diameter of the conduit through which the heattransfer fluid flows in overburden 400 may be smaller than the diameterof the conduit through the treatment area. For example, the diameter ofthe pipe in the overburden may be about 3″ (about 7.6 cm), and thediameter of the pipe adjacent to the treatment area may be about 5″(about 12.7 cm). The smaller diameter pipe through overburden 400 mayreduce heat loss from the heat transfer fluid to the overburden.Reducing heat loss to overburden 400 reduces cooling of the heattransfer fluid supplied to the conduit adjacent to hydrocarbon layer388. In certain embodiments, any increased heat loss in the smallerdiameter pipe due to increased velocity of the heat transfer fluidthrough the smaller diameter pipe is offset by the smaller surface areaof the smaller diameter pipe and the decrease in residence time of theheat transfer fluid in the smaller diameter pipe.

Heat transfer fluid from heat supply 708 of heat transfer fluidcirculation system 706 passes through overburden 400 of formation 492 tohydrocarbon layer 388. In certain embodiments, portions of heaters 412extending through overburden 400 are insulated. In some embodiments, theinsulation or part of the insulation is a polyimide insulating material.In some embodiments, inlet portions of heaters 412 in hydrocarbon layer388 have tapering insulation to reduce overheating of the hydrocarbonlayer near the inlet of the heater into the hydrocarbon layer.

The overburden section of heaters 412 may be insulated to prevent orinhibit heat loss into non-hydrocarbon bearing zones of the formation.In some embodiments, thermal insulation is provided by aconduit-in-conduit design. The heat transfer fluid flows through theinner conduit. Insulation fills the space between the inner conduit andthe outer conduit. An effective insulation may be a combination of metalfoil to inhibit radiative heat loss and microporous silica powder toinhibit conductive heat loss. Reducing the pressure in the space betweenthe inner conduit and the outer conduit by pulling a vacuum duringassembly and/or with getters may further reduce heat losses when usingthe conduit-in-conduit design. To account for the differential thermalexpansion of the inner conduit and the outer conduit, the inner conduitmay be pre-stressed or made of a material with low thermal expansion(for example, Invar alloys). The insulated conduit-in-conduit may beinstalled continuously in conjunction with coiled tubing installation.Insulated conduit-in-conduit systems may be available from IndustrialThermo Polymers Limited (Ontario, Canada) and Oil Tech Services, Inc.(Houston, Tex., U.S.A.). Other effective insulation materials include,but are not limited to, ceramic blankets, foam cements, cements with lowthermal conductivity aggregates (such as vermiculite), Izoflex™insulation, and aerogel/glass-fiber composites such as those provided byAspen Aerogels, Inc. (Northborough, Mass., U.S.A.).

FIG. 172 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of overburdeninsulation. Insulating cement 740 may be placed between casing 398 andformation 492. Insulating cement 740 may also be placed between heattransfer fluid conduit 742 and casing 398.

FIG. 173 depicts a cross-sectional view of an alternate embodiment ofoverburden insulation that includes insulating sleeve 722 around heattransfer fluid conduit 742. Insulating sleeve 722 may include, forexample, an aerogel. Gap 744 may be located between insulating sleeve722 and casing 398. The emissivities of insulating sleeve 722 and casing398 may be low to inhibit radiative heat transfer in gap 744. Anon-reactive gas may be placed in gap 744 between insulating sleeve 722and casing 398. Gas in gap 744 may inhibit conductive heat transferbetween insulating sleeve 722 and casing 398. In some embodiments, avacuum may be drawn and maintained in gap 744. Insulating cement 740 maybe placed between casing 398 and formation 492. In some embodiments,insulating sleeve 722 has a significantly smaller thermal conductivityvalue than the thermal conductivity value of insulating cement. Incertain embodiments, the insulation provided by the insulation depictedin FIG. 173 may be better than the insulation provided by the insulationdepicted in FIG. 172.

FIG. 174 depicts a cross-sectional view of an alternative embodiment ofoverburden insulation with insulating sleeve 722 around heat transferfluid conduit 742, vacuum gap 746 between the insulating sleeve andconduit 748, and gap 744 between the conduit and casing 398. Insulatingcement 740 may be placed between casing 398 and formation 492. Anon-reactive gas may be placed in gap 744 between conduit 748 and casing398. In some embodiments, a vacuum may be drawn and maintained in gap744. A vacuum may be drawn and maintained in vacuum gap 746 betweeninsulating sleeve 722 and conduit 748. Insulating sleeve 722 may includelayers of insulating material separated by foil 750. The insulationmaterial may be, for example, aerogel. The layers of insulating materialseparated by foil 750 may provide substantial insulation around heattransfer fluid conduit 742. Vacuum gap 746 may inhibit radiative,convective, and/or conductive heat transfer between insulating sleeve722 and conduit 748. A non-reactive gas may be placed in gap 744. Theemissivities of conduit 748 and casing 398 may be low to inhibitradiative heat transfer between the conduit and the casing. In certainembodiments, the insulation provided by the insulation depicted in FIG.174 may be better than the insulation provided by the insulationdepicted in FIG. 173.

When heat transfer fluid is circulated through piping in the formationto heat the formation, the heat of the heat transfer fluid may causechanges in the piping. The heat in the piping may reduce the strength ofthe piping since Young's modulus and other strength characteristics varywith temperature. The high temperatures in the piping may raise creepconcerns, may cause buckling conditions, and may move the piping fromthe elastic deformation region to the plastic deformation region.

Heating the piping may cause thermal expansion of the piping. For longheaters placed in the wellbore, the piping may expand 20 m or more. Insome embodiments, the horizontal portion of the piping is cemented inthe formation with thermally conductive cement. Care may need to betaken to ensure that there are no significant gaps in the cement toinhibit expansion of the piping into the gaps and possible failure.Thermal expansion of the piping may cause ripples in the pipe and/or anincrease in the wall thickness of the pipe.

For long heaters with gradual bend radii (for example, about 10° of bendper 30 m), thermal expansion of the piping may be accommodated in theoverburden or at the surface of the formation. After thermal expansionis completed, the position of the heaters relative to the wellheads maybe secured. When heating is finished and the formation is cooled, theposition of the heaters may be unsecured so that thermal contraction ofthe heaters does not destroy the heaters.

FIGS. 175-185 depict schematic representations of various methods foraccommodating thermal expansion. In some embodiments, change in lengthof the heater due to thermal expansion may be accommodated above thewellhead. After substantial changes in the length of the heater due tothermal expansion cease, the heater position relative to the wellheadmay be fixed. The heater position relative to the wellhead may remainfixed until the end of heating of the formation. After heating is ended,the position of the heater relative to the wellhead may be freed(unfixed) to accommodate thermal contraction of the heater as the heatercools.

FIG. 175 depicts a representation of bellows 752. Length L of bellows752 may change to accommodate thermal expansion and/or contraction ofpiping 754. Bellows 752 may be located subsurface or above the surface.In some embodiments, bellows 752 includes a fluid that transfers heatout of the wellhead.

FIG. 176A depicts a representation of piping 754 with expansion loop 756above wellhead 392 for accommodating thermal expansion. Sliding seals inwellhead 392, stuffing boxes, or other pressure control equipment of thewellhead allow piping 754 to move relative to casing 398. Expansion ofpiping 754 is accommodated in expansion loop 756. In some embodiments,two or more expansion loops 756 are used to accommodate expansion ofpiping 754.

FIG. 176B depicts a representation of piping 754 with coiled or spooledpiping 758 above wellhead 392 for accommodating thermal expansion.Sliding seals in wellhead 392, stuffing boxes, or other pressure controlequipment of the wellhead allow piping 754 to move relative to casing398. Expansion of piping 754 is accommodated in coiled piping 758. Insome embodiments, expansion is accommodated by coiling the portion ofthe heater exiting the formation on a spool using a coiled tubing rig.

In some embodiments, coiled piping 758 may be enclosed in insulatedvolume 760, as shown in FIG. 176C. Enclosing coiled piping 758 ininsulated volume 760 may reduce heat loss from the coiled piping andfluids inside the coiled piping. In some embodiments, coiled piping 758has a diameter between 2′ (about 0.6 m) and 4′ (about 1.2 m) toaccommodate up to about 30′ (about 9.1 m) of expansion in piping 754.

FIG. 177 depicts a portion of piping 754 in overburden 400 after thermalexpansion of the piping has occurred. Casing 398 has a large diameter toaccommodate buckling of piping 754. Insulating cement 740 may be betweenoverburden 400 and casing 398. Thermal expansion of piping 754 causeshelical or sinusoidal buckling of the piping. The helical or sinusoidalbuckling of piping 754 accommodates the thermal expansion of the piping,including the horizontal piping adjacent to the treatment area beingheated. As depicted in FIG. 178, piping 754 may be more than one conduitpositioned in large diameter casing 398. Having piping 754 as multipleconduits allows for accommodation of thermal expansion of all of thepiping in the formation without increasing the pressure drop of thefluid flowing through piping in overburden 400.

In some embodiments, thermal expansion of subsurface piping istranslated up to the wellhead. Expansion may be accommodated by one ormore sliding seals at the wellhead. The seals may include Grafoil®gaskets, Stellite® gaskets, and/or Nitronic® gaskets. In someembodiments, the seals include seals available from BST Lift Systems,Inc. (Ventura, Calif., U.S.A.).

FIG. 179 depicts a representation of wellhead 392 with sliding seal 728.Wellhead 392 may include a stuffing box and/or other pressure controlequipment. Circulated fluid may pass through conduit 742. Conduit 742may be at least partially surrounded by insulated conduit 722. The useof insulated conduit 722 may obviate the need for a high temperaturesliding seal and the need to seal against the heat transfer fluid.Expansion of conduit 742 may be handled at the surface with expansionloops, bellows, coiled or spooled pipe, and/or sliding joints. In someembodiments, packers 762 between insulated conduit 722 and casing 398seal the wellbore against formation pressure and hold gas for additionalinsulation. Packers 762 may be inflatable packers and/or polished borereceptacles. In certain embodiments, packers 762 are operable up totemperatures of about 600° C. In some embodiments, packers 762 includeseals available from BST Lift Systems, Inc. (Ventura, Calif., U.S.A.).

In some embodiments, thermal expansion of subsurface piping is handledat the surface with a slip joint that allows the heat transfer fluidconduit to expand out of the formation to accommodate the thermalexpansion. Hot heat transfer fluid may pass from a fixed conduit intothe heat transfer fluid conduit in the formation. Return heat transferfluid from the formation may pass from the heat transfer fluid conduitinto the fixed conduit. A sliding seal between the fixed conduit and thepiping in the formation, and a sliding seal between the wellhead and thepiping in the formation, may accommodate expansion of the heat transferfluid conduit at the slip joint.

FIG. 180 depicts a representation of a system where heat transfer fluidin conduit 742 is transferred to or from fixed conduit 764. Insulatingsleeve 722 may surround conduit 742. Sliding seal 728 may be betweeninsulated sleeve 722 and wellhead 392. Packers between insulating sleeve722 and casing 398 may seal the wellbore against formation pressure.Heat transfer fluid seals 790 may be positioned between a portion offixed conduit 764 and conduit 742. Heat transfer fluid seals 790 may besecured to fixed conduit 764. The resulting slip joint allows insulatingsleeve 722 and conduit 742 to move relative to wellhead 392 toaccommodate thermal expansion of the piping positioned in the formation.Conduit 742 is also able to move relative to fixed conduit 764 in orderto accommodate thermal expansion. Heat transfer fluid seals 790 may beuninsulated and spatially separated from the flowing heat transfer fluidto maintain the heat transfer fluid seals at relatively lowtemperatures.

In some embodiments, thermal expansion is handled at the surface with aslip joint where the heat transfer fluid conduit is free to move and thefixed conduit is part of the wellhead. FIG. 181 depicts a representationof a system where fixed conduit 764 is secured to wellhead 392. Fixedconduit 764 may include insulating sleeve 722. Heat transfer fluid seals790 may be coupled to an upper portion of conduit 742. Heat transferfluid seals 790 may be uninsulated and spatially separated from theflowing heat transfer fluid to maintain the heat transfer fluid seals atrelatively low temperatures. Conduit 742 is able to move relative tofixed conduit 764 without the need for a sliding seal in wellhead 392.

FIG. 182 depicts an embodiment of seals 790. Seals 790 may include sealstack 766 attached to packer body 768. Packer body 768 may be coupled toconduit 742 using packer setting slips 770 and packer insulation seal772. Seal stack 766 may engage polished portion 774 of conduit 764. Insome embodiments, cam rollers 776 are used to provide support to sealstack 766. For example, if side loads are too large for the seal stack.In some embodiments, wipers 778 are coupled to packer body 768. Wipers778 may be used to clean polished portion 774 as conduit 764 is insertedthrough seal 790. Wipers 778 may be placed on the upper side of seals790, if needed. In some embodiments, seal stack 766 is loaded for bettercontact using a bow spring or other preloaded means to enhancecompression of the seals.

In some embodiments, seals 790 and conduit 764 are run together intoconduit 742. Locking mechanisms such as mandrels may be used to securethe seals and the conduits in place. FIG. 183 depicts an embodiment ofseals 790, conduit 742, and conduit 764 secured in place with lockingmechanisms 780. Locking mechanisms 780 include insulation seals 782 andlocking slips 784. Locking mechanisms 780 may be activated as seals 790and conduit 764 enter into conduit 742.

As locking mechanisms 780 engage a selected portion of conduit 742,springs in the locking mechanisms are activated and open and exposeinsulations seals 782 against the surface of conduit 742 just abovelocking slips 784. Locking mechanisms 780 allow insulations seals 782 tobe retracted as the assembly is moved into conduit 742. The insulationseals are opened and exposed when the profile of conduit 742 activatesthe locking mechanisms.

Pins 786 secure locking mechanisms 780, seals 790, conduit 742, andconduit 764 in place. In certain embodiments, pins 786 unlock theassembly after a selected temperature to allow movement (travel) of theconduits. For example, pins 786 may be made of materials that thermallydegrade (for example, melt) above a desired temperature.

In some embodiments, locking mechanisms 780 are set in place using softmetal seals (for example, soft metal friction seals commonly used to setrod pumps in thermal wells). FIG. 184 depicts an embodiment with lockingmechanisms 780 set in place using soft metal seals 788. Soft metal seals788 work by collapsing against a reduction in the inner diameter ofconduit 742. Using metal seals may increase the lifetime of the assemblyversus using elastomeric seals.

In certain embodiments, lift systems are coupled to the piping of aheater that extends out of the formation. The lift systems may liftportions of the heater out of the formation to accommodate thermalexpansion. FIG. 185 depicts a representation of u-shaped wellbore 490with heater 412 positioned in the wellbore. Wellbore 490 may includecasings 398 and lower seals 792. Heater 412 may include insulatedportions 794 with heater portion 796 adjacent to treatment area 730.Moving seals 790 may be coupled to an upper portion of heater 412.Lifting systems 798 may be coupled to insulated portions 794 abovewellheads 392. A non-reactive gas (for example, nitrogen and/or carbondioxide) may be introduced in subsurface annular region 800 betweencasings 398 and insulated portions 794 to inhibit gaseous formationfluid from rising to wellhead 392 and to provide an insulating gasblanket. Insulated portions 794 may be conduit-in-conduits with the heattransfer fluid of the circulation system flowing through the innerconduit. The outer conduit of each insulated portion 794 may be at asubstantially lower temperature than the inner conduit. The lowertemperature of the outer conduit allows the outer conduits to be used asload bearing members for lifting heater 412. Differential expansionbetween the outer conduit and the inner conduit may be mitigated byinternal bellows and/or by sliding seals.

Lifting systems 798 may include hydraulic lifters, powered coiled tubingrigs, and/or counterweight systems capable of supporting heater 412 andmoving insulated portions 794 into or out of the formation. When liftingsystems 798 include hydraulic lifters, the outer conduits of insulatedportions 794 may be kept cool at the hydraulic lifters by dedicatedslick transition joints. The hydraulic lifters may include two sets ofslips. A first set of slips may be coupled to the heater. The hydrauliclifters may maintain a constant pressure against the heater for the fullstroke of the hydraulic cylinder. A second set of slips may periodicallybe set against the outer conduit while the stroke of the hydrauliccylinder is reset. Lifting systems 798 may also include strain gaugesand control systems. The strain gauges may be attached to the outerconduit of insulated portions 794, or the strain gauges may be attachedto the inner conduits of the insulated portions below the insulation.Attaching the strain gauges to the outer conduit may be easier and theattachment coupling may be more reliable.

Before heating begins, set points for the control systems may beestablished by using lifting systems 798 to lift heater 412 such thatportions of the heater contact casing 398 in the bend portions ofwellbore 490. The strain when heater 412 is lifted may be used as theset point for the control system. In other embodiments, the set point ischosen in a different manner. When heating begins, heater portion 796will begin expanding and some of the heater section will advancehorizontally. If the expansion forces portions of heater 412 againstcasing 398, the weight of the heater will be supported at the contactpoints of insulated portions 794 and the casing. The strain measured bylifting system 798 will go towards zero. Additional thermal expansionmay cause heater 412 to buckle and fail. Instead of allowing heater 412to press against casing 398, hydraulic lifters of lifting systems 798may move sections of insulated portions 794 upwards and out of theformation to keep the heater against the top of the casing. The controlsystems of lifting systems 798 may lift heater 412 to maintain thestrain measured by the strain gauges near the set point value. Liftingsystem 798 may also be used to reintroduce insulated portions 794 intothe formation when the formation cools to avoid damage to heater 412during thermal contraction.

In certain embodiments, thermal expansion of the heater is completed ina relatively short time frame. In some embodiments, the position of theheater is fixed relative to the wellbore after thermal expansion iscompleted. The lifting systems may be removed from the heaters and usedon other heaters that have not yet been heated. Lifting systems may bereattached to the heaters when the formation is cooled to accommodatethermal contraction of the heaters.

In some embodiments, the lifting systems are controlled based on thehydraulic pressure of the lifters. Changes in the tension of the pipemay result in a change in the hydraulic pressure. The control system maymaintain the hydraulic pressure substantially at a set hydraulicpressure to provide accommodation of thermal expansion of the heater inthe formation.

In certain embodiments, the circulation system uses a liquid to heat theformation. The use of liquid heat transfer fluid may allow for highoverall energy efficiency for the system as compared to electricalheating or gas heaters due to the high energy efficiency of heatsupplies used to heat the liquid heat transfer fluid. If furnaces areused to heat the liquid heat transfer fluid, the carbon dioxidefootprint of the process may be reduced as compared to electricallyheating or using gas burners positioned in wellbores due to theefficiencies of the furnaces. If nuclear power is used to heat theliquid heat transfer fluid, the carbon dioxide footprint of the processmay be significantly reduced or even eliminated. The surface facilitiesfor the heating system may be formed from commonly available industrialequipment in simple layouts. Using commonly available equipment insimple layouts may increase the overall reliability of the system.

In certain embodiments, the liquid heat transfer fluid is a molten saltor other liquid that has the potential to solidify if the temperature isbelow a selected temperature. A secondary heating system may be neededto ensure that heat transfer fluid remains in liquid form and that theheat transfer fluid is at a temperature that allows the heat transferfluid to flow through the heaters from the circulation system. Incertain embodiments, the secondary heating system heats the heaterand/or the heat transfer fluid to a temperature that is sufficient tomelt and ensure flowability of the heat transfer fluid instead ofheating to a higher temperature. The secondary heating system may onlybe needed for a short period of time during startup and/or re-startup ofthe fluid circulation system. In some embodiments, the secondary heatingsystem is removable from the heater. In some embodiments, the secondaryheating system does not have an expected lifetime on the order of thelife of the heater.

In certain embodiments, molten salt is used as the heat transfer fluid.Insulated return storage tanks receive return molten salt from theformation. Temperatures in the return storage tanks may be, for example,in the vicinity of about 350° C. Pumps may move the molten salt from thereturn storage tanks to furnaces. Each of the pumps may need to movebetween 4 kg/s and 30 kg/s of the molten salt. Each furnace may provideheat to the molten salt. Exit temperatures of the molten salt from thefurnaces may be about 550° C. The molten salt may pass from the furnacesto insulated feed storage tanks through piping. Each feed storage stankmay supply molten salt to, for example, 50 or more piping systems thatenter into the formation. The molten salt flows through the formationand to the return storage tanks. In certain embodiments, the furnaceshave efficiencies that are 90% or greater. In certain embodiments, heatloss to the overburden is 8% or less.

In some embodiments, the heaters for the circulation systems includeinsulation along the lengths of the heaters, including portions of theheaters that are used to heat the treatment area. The insulation mayfacilitate insertion of the heaters into the formation. The insulationadjacent to portions used to heat the treatment area may be sufficientto provide insulation during preheating, but may decompose attemperatures produced by steady state circulation of the heat transferfluid. In some embodiments, the insulation layer changes the emissivityof the heater to inhibit radiative heat transfer from the heater. Afterdecomposition of the insulation, the emissivity of the heater maypromote radiative heat transfer to the treatment area. The insulationmay reduce the time needed to raise the temperature of the heatersand/or the heat transfer fluid in the heaters to temperatures sufficientto ensure melt and flowability of the heat transfer fluid. In someembodiments, the insulation adjacent to portions of the heaters thatwill heat the treatment area may include polymer coatings. In certainembodiments, insulation of portions of the heaters adjacent to theoverburden is different than the insulation of the heaters adjacent tothe portions of the heaters used to heat the treatment area. Theinsulation of the heaters adjacent to the overburden may have anexpected lifetime equal to or greater than the lifetime of the heaters.

In some embodiments, degradable insulation material (for example, apolymer foam) may be introduced into the wellbore after or duringplacement of the heater. The degradable insulation may provideinsulation adjacent to the portions of the heaters used to heat thetreatment area during preheating. The liquid heat transfer fluid used toheat the treatment area may raise the temperature of the heatersufficiently enough to degrade and eliminate the insulation layer.

In some embodiments, the secondary heating system may electrically heatthe heaters of the fluid circulation system. In some embodiments,electricity is applied directly to the heat transfer fluid conduit toresistively heat the heat transfer fluid conduit. Directly heating theheat transfer fluid conduit may require large current because of therelatively low resistance of the heat transfer fluid conduit. In someembodiments, a return current path is needed for the heat transfer fluidconduit.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer fluid conduit includesferromagnetic material that allows the effective resistance of the heattransfer fluid conduit to be higher due to skin effect heating whentime-varying current is applied to the heat transfer fluid conduit. Forexample, the heat transfer fluid conduit may be a steel with betweenabout 9% and about 13% by weight chromium (for example, as 410 stainlesssteel). A return current path may be needed for the ferromagneticmaterial.

In certain embodiments, resistively heating the heater requires specialconsiderations. Wellheads may need to include isolation flanges toensure that current travels down the subsurface conduits and not throughthe surface pipe manifolds. Also, casings in the formation may need tobe made of a non-ferromagnetic material (for example, non-ferromagnetichigh manganese content steel, fiberglass, or carbon fiber) to inhibitinduction current heating of the casing and/or the surroundingformation. In some embodiments, the overburden section of the heater isa conduit-in-conduit configuration with a thermal barrier between theconduits. The thermal barrier may act as insulation to limit the amountof heat transferred to the inner conduit and the molten salt. Making theouter conduit of a non-ferromagnetic material may allow for distributionof current between the inner conduit and the outer conduit to adequatelyheat the inner conduit and salt. In some embodiments, electricallyconductive centralizers are located between the casing and the heater.

FIG. 186 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment of a systemfor heating a portion of a formation using a circulated fluid systemand/or electrical heating. Wellheads 392 of heaters 412 may be coupledto heat transfer fluid circulation system 706 by piping. Wellheads 392may also be coupled to electrical power supply system 802. In someembodiments, heat transfer fluid circulation system 706 is disconnectedfrom the heaters when electrical power is used to heat the formation. Insome embodiments, electrical power supply system 802 is disconnectedfrom the heaters when heat transfer fluid circulation system 706 is usedto heat the formation.

Electrical power supply system 802 may include transformer 414 andcables 804, 806. In certain embodiments, cables 804, 806 are capable ofcarrying high currents with low losses. For example, cables 804, 806 maybe thick copper or aluminum conductors. The cables may also have thickinsulation layers. In some embodiments, cable 804 and/or cable 806 maybe superconducting cables. The superconducting cables may be cooled byliquid nitrogen. Superconducting cables are available from Superpower,Inc. (Schenectady, N.Y., U.S.A.). Superconducting cables may minimizepower loss and/or reduce the size of the cables needed to coupletransformer 414 to the heaters. In some embodiments, cables 804, 806 aremade of carbon nanotubes. Cables 804, 806 may be electrically coupled toheaters 412 to resistively heat the heaters.

In some embodiments, insulated conductors that resistively heat are usedto preheat and/or ensure heat transfer flow in the heaters of a fluidcirculation system. FIG. 187 depicts a representation of heater 412 thatmay initially be resistively heated with the return current pathprovided by insulated conductor 410. Electrical connection between alead of transformer 414 and heater 412 may be made near a first side ofthe heater. The other lead of transformer 414 may be electricallycoupled to insulated conductor 410. Electrical connection 808 betweenheater 412 and insulated conductor 410 may be made on an opposite sideof heater from transformer 414 to complete the electrical circuit. FIG.188 depicts a representation of heater 412 that may initially beresistively heated with the return current path provided by twoinsulated conductors 410. Transformers 414 may be located on each sideof heater 412. Leads from transformers 414 may be electrically coupledto heater 412. The other leads for transformers 414 may be electricallycoupled to insulated conductors 410. Electrical connections 808 betweeninsulated conductors 410 and heater 412 may be made near the center ofthe heater to complete the electrical circuits. Insulated conductors 410depicted in FIG. 187 and FIG. 188 may be good electrical conductors thatprovide little or no resistive heating. Insulated conductors 410 may becoupled to the inside of heaters 412 as depicted, or the insulatedconductors may be positioned outside of the heaters.

FIG. 189 depicts a representation of insulated conductors 410 used toresistively heat heaters 412 of a circulated fluid heating system.Insulated conductors 410 may be coupled to transformer 414 in a threephase configuration. Lead-in and lead-out portions of insulatedconductors may be good electrical conductors that provide little or noresistive heating. Portions of insulated conductors 410 coupled to orpositioned in heaters 412 may include material that resistively heats totemperatures sufficient to heat the heat transfer fluid in the heatersto a temperature sufficient to allow flow of the heat transfer fluid. Insome embodiments, the material is ferromagnetic and the insulatedconductors operate as temperature limited heaters. The Curie pointtemperature limit or phase transition temperature limit of theferromagnetic material may allow the insulated conductors to reachtemperatures above but relatively close to the temperature needed toensure melt and flowability of heat transfer fluid in heaters 412.

FIG. 190 depicts insulated conductor 410 positioned in heater 412.Heater 412 is piping of the circulation system positioned in theformation. Electricity applied to insulated conductor 410 resistivelyheats the insulated conductor. The generated heat transfers to heater412 and heat transfer fluid in the heater. In some embodiments, theinsulated conductors may be strapped to the outside of the heatersinstead of being placed inside of the heaters. Insulated conductor 410may be a relatively thin mineral insulated conductor positioned in arelatively large diameter piping as shown. In some embodiments,insulated conductors positioned in the heaters may be placed inside of aprotective sleeve. For example, the insulated conductor may have anouter diameter of about 0.6 inches and placed inside a 1 inch tube orpipe that is placed in the 5 inch heater pipe.

In some embodiments, insulated conductors positioned inside or outsideheaters used with a circulated fluid heating system may provide currentthat is used to cause inductive heating. The current flowing through theinsulated conductors may be used to induce currents in the heater sothat the heater resistively heats. In some embodiments, the insulatedconductors may be wrapped with a coil that is inductively heated. Thecoil may be made of a material that has a Curie temperature limit orphase transition temperature limit slightly higher than the temperatureneeded to ensure melt and flowability of heat transfer fluid in theheaters.

In some embodiments, insulated conductors used as current paths or aselectrical heaters may be removable from heaters used for circulatingheat transfer fluid. After heat transfer fluid circulation in a heateris initiated and stabilizes, the heat transfer fluid will heat theadjacent formation to temperatures above the temperature needed toensure melt and flowability of the heat transfer fluid. The heat of theformation and the heat of the heat transfer fluid may be sufficient toensure melt and flowability of the heat transfer fluid should thecirculation system temporarily be interrupted (for example, for a day, aweek, or a month). For heaters with the insulated conductor positionedin the heater, the insulated conductors may be pulled out of the heaterthrough seals in the wellhead that allow for electrical connection tothe insulated conductors. The insulated conductors may be coiled andreused in heaters that have not been preheated. Should it be necessary,insulated conductor heaters may be reintroduced into the heaters.

In some embodiments of circulation systems that use molten salt oranother liquid as the heat transfer fluid, the heater may be a singleconduit in the formation. The conduit may be preheated to a temperaturesufficient to ensure flowability of the heat transfer fluid. In someembodiments, a secondary heat transfer fluid is circulated through theconduit to preheat the conduit and/or the formation adjacent to theconduit. After the temperature of the conduit and/or the formationadjacent to the conduit is sufficiently hot, the secondary fluid may beflushed from the conduit and the heat transfer fluid may be circulatedthrough the pipe.

In some embodiments, aqueous solutions of the salt composition (forexample, Li:Na:K:NO₃) that is to be used as the heat transfer fluid areused to preheat the conduit. A temperature of the secondary heattransfer fluid may be below or equal to a temperature of a subsurfaceoutlet of the wellhead.

In some embodiments, the secondary heat transfer fluid (for example,water) is heated to a temperature ranging from 0° C. to about 95° C. orup to the boiling point of the secondary heat transfer fluid. The saltcomposition may be added to the secondary heat transfer fluid while in astorage tank of the circulation systems. The composition of the saltand/or the pressure of the system may be adjusted to inhibit boiling ofthe aqueous solution as the temperature is increased. When the conduitis preheated to a temperature sufficient to ensure flowability of themolten salt, the remaining water may be removed from the aqueoussolution to leave only the molten salt. The water may be removed byevaporation while the salt solution is in a storage tank of thecirculation system. In some embodiments, the temperature of the moltensalt solution is raised to above 100° C. When the conduit is preheatedto a temperature sufficient to ensure flowability of the molten salt,substantially or all of the remaining secondary heat transfer fluid (forexample, water) may be removed from the salt solution to leave only themolten salt. In some embodiments, the temperature of the molten saltsolution during the evaporation process ranges from 100° C. to 250° C.

Upon completion of the in situ heat treatment process, the molten saltmay be cooled and water added (for example, water may be sprayed intothe storage tank) to the salt to form another aqueous solution. In someembodiments, the molten salt may be cooled by circulating the moltensalt solution through one or more heat exchangers. The aqueous solutionmay be transferred to another treatment area and the process continued.In some embodiments, sufficient water may be added and circulated to thestorage system until the molten salt solution is below the requiredlevel for abandonment. The excess water solution may be transferred toanother tank for disposal and/or transferred to another treatment area.Use of tertiary molten salts as aqueous solutions facilitatestransportation of the solution and allows than one section of aformation to be treated with the same salt.

In some embodiments of circulation systems that use molten salt or otherliquid as the heat transfer fluid, the heater may have aconduit-in-conduit configuration. The liquid heat transfer fluid used toheat the formation may flow through a first passageway through theheater. A secondary heat transfer fluid may flow through a secondpassageway through the conduit-in-conduit heater for preheating and/orfor flow assurance of the liquid heat transfer fluid. After the heateris raised to a temperature sufficient to ensure continued flow of heattransfer fluid through the heater, a vacuum may be drawn on thepassageway for the secondary heat transfer fluid to inhibit heattransfer from the first passageway to the second passageway. In someembodiments, the passageway for the secondary heat transfer fluid isfilled with insulating material and/or is otherwise blocked. Thepassageways in the conduit of the conduit-in-conduit heater may includethe inner conduit and the annular region between the inner conduit andthe outer conduit. In some embodiments, one or more flow switchers areused to change the flow in the conduit-in-conduit heater from the innerconduit to the annular region and/or vice versa.

FIG. 191 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment ofconduit-in-conduit heater 412 for a heat transfer circulation heatingsystem adjacent to treatment area 730. Heater 412 may be positioned inwellbore 490. Heater 412 may include outer conduit 810 and inner conduit812. During normal operation of heater 412, liquid heat transfer fluidmay flow through annular region 814 between outer conduit 810 and innerconduit 812. During normal operation, fluid flow through inner conduit812 may not be needed.

During preheating and/or for flow assurance, a secondary heat transferfluid may flow through inner conduit 812. The secondary fluid may be,but is not limited to, air, carbon dioxide, exhaust gas, and/or anatural or synthetic oil (for example, DowTherm A, Syltherm, orTherminol 59), room temperature molten salts (for example, NaCl₂—SrCl₂,VCl₄, SnCl₄, or TiCl₄), high pressure liquid water, steam, or roomtemperature molten metal alloys (for example, a K—Na eutectic or aGa—In—Sn eutectic). In some embodiments, outer conduit 810 is heated bythe secondary heat transfer fluid flowing through annular region 814(for example, carbon dioxide or exhaust gas) before the heat transferfluid that is used to heat the formation is introduced into the annularregion. If exhaust gas or other high temperature fluid is used, anotherheat transfer fluid (for example, water or steam) may be passed throughthe heater to reduce the temperature below the upper working temperaturelimit of the liquid heat transfer fluid. The secondary heat transferfluid may be displaced from the annular region when the liquid heattransfer fluid is introduced into the heater. The secondary heattransfer fluid in inner conduit 812 may be the same fluid or a differentfluid than the secondary fluid used to preheat outer conduit 810 duringpreheating. Using two different secondary heat transfer fluids may helpin the identification of integrity problems in heater 412. Any integrityproblems may be identified and fixed before the use of the molten saltis initiated.

In some embodiments, the secondary heat transfer fluid that flowsthrough annular region 814 during preheating is an aqueous mixture ofthe salt to be used during normal operation. The salt concentration maybe increased periodically to increase temperature while remaining belowthe boiling temperature of the aqueous mixture. The aqueous mixture maybe used to raise the temperature of outer conduit 810 to a temperaturesufficient to allow the molten salt to flow in annular region 814. Whenthe temperature is reached, the remaining water in the aqueous mixturemay evaporate out of the mixture to leave the molten salt. The moltensalt may be used to heat treatment area 730.

In some embodiments, inner conduit 812 may be made of a relativelyinexpensive material such as carbon steel. In some embodiments, innerconduit 812 is made of material that survives through an initial earlystage of the heat treatment process. Outer conduit 810 may be made ofmaterial resistant to corrosion by the molten salt and formation fluid(for example, P91 steel).

For a given mass flow rate of liquid heat transfer fluid, heating thetreatment area using liquid heat transfer fluid flowing in annularregion 814 between outer conduit 810 and inner conduit 812 may havecertain advantages over flowing the liquid heat transfer fluid through asingle conduit. Flowing secondary heat transfer fluid through innerconduit 812 may pre-heat heater 412 and ensure flow when liquid heattransfer fluid is first used and/or when flow needs to be restartedafter a stop of circulation. The large outer surface area of outerconduit 810 provides a large surface area for heat transfer to theformation while the amount of liquid heat transfer fluid needed for thecirculation system is reduced because of the presence of inner conduit812. The circulated liquid heat transfer fluid may provide a betterpower injection rate distribution to the treatment area due to increasedvelocity of the liquid heat transfer fluid for the same mass flow rate.Reliability of the heater may also be improved.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer fluid (molten salt) may thickenand flow of the heat transfer fluid through outer conduit 810 and/orinner conduit 812 is slowed and/or impaired. Selectively heating variousportions of inner conduit 812 may provide sufficient heat to variousparts of the heater 412 to increase flow of the heat transfer fluidthrough the heater. Portions of heater 412 may include ferromagneticmaterial (for example, insulated conductors) to allow current to bepassed along selected portions of the heater. Resistively heating innerconduit 812 transfers sufficient heat to thickened heat transfer fluidin outer conduit 810 and/or inner conduit 812 to lower the viscosity ofthe heat transfer fluid such that increased flow, as compared to flowprior to heating of the molten salt, through the conduits is obtained.Using time-varying current allows current to be passed along the innerconduit without passing current through the heat transfer fluid.

FIG. 192 depicts a schematic for heating various portions of heater 412to restart flow of thickened or immobilized heat transfer fluid (forexample, a molten salt) in the heater. In certain embodiments, portionsof inner conduit 812 and/or outer conduit 810 include ferromagneticmaterials surrounded by thermal insulation. Thus, these portions ofinner conduit 812 and/or outer conduit 810 may be insulated conductors410. Insulated conductors 410 may operate as temperature limited heatersor skin-effect heaters. Because of the skin-effect of insulatedconductors 410, electrical current provided to the insulated conductorsremains confined to inner conduit 812 and/or outer conduit 810 and doesnot flow through the heat transfer fluid located in the conduits.

In certain embodiments, insulated conductors 410 are positioned along aselected length of inner conduit 812 (for example, the entire length ofthe inner conduit or only the overburden portion of the inner conduit).Applying electricity to inner conduit 812 generates heat in insulatedconductors 410. The generated heat may heat thickened or immobilizedheat transfer fluid along the selected length of the inner conduit. Thegenerated heat may heat the heat transfer fluid both inside the innerconduit and in the annulus between the inner conduit and outer conduit810. In certain embodiments, inner conduit 812 only includes insulatedconductors 410 positioned in the overburden portion of the innerconduit. These insulated conductors selectively generate heat in theoverburden portions of inner conduit 812. Selectively heating theoverburden portion of inner conduit 812 may transfer heat to thickenedheat transfer fluid and restart flow in the overburden portion of theinner conduit. Such selective heating may increase heater life andminimize electrical heating costs by concentrating heat in the regionmost likely to encounter thickening or immobilization of the heattransfer fluid.

In certain embodiments, insulated conductors 410 are positioned along aselected length of outer conduit 810 (for example, the overburdenportion of the outer conduit). Applying electricity to outer conduit 810generates heat in insulated conductors 410. The generated heat mayselectively heat the overburden portions of the annulus between innerconduit 812 and outer conduit 810. Sufficient heat may be transferredfrom outer conduit 810 to lower the viscosity of the thickened heattransfer fluid to allow unimpaired flow of the molten salt in theannulus.

In certain embodiments, having a conduit-in-conduit heater configurationallows flow switchers to be used that change the flow of heat transferfluid in the heater from flow through the annular region between theouter conduit and the inner conduit, when flow is adjacent to thetreatment area, to flow through the inner conduit, when flow is adjacentto the overburden. FIG. 193 depicts a schematic representation ofconduit-in-conduit heaters 412 that are used with fluid circulationsystems 706, 706′ to heat treatment area 730. In certain embodiments,heaters 412 include outer conduit 810, inner conduit 812, and flowswitchers 816. Fluid circulation systems 706, 706′ provide heated liquidheat transfer fluid to wellheads 392. The direction of flow of liquidheat transfer fluid is indicated by arrows 818.

Heat transfer fluid from fluid circulation system 706 passes throughwellhead 392 to inner conduit 812. The heat transfer fluid passesthrough flow switcher 816, which changes the flow from inner conduit 812to the annular region between outer conduit 810 and the inner conduit.The heat transfer fluid then flows through heater 412 in treatment area730. Heat transfer from the heat transfer fluid provides heat totreatment area 730. The heat transfer fluid then passes through secondflow switcher 816′, which changes the flow from the annular region backto inner conduit 812. The heat transfer fluid is removed from theformation through second wellhead 392′ and is provided to fluidcirculation system 706′. Heated heat transfer fluid from fluidcirculation system 706′ passes through heater 412′ back to fluidcirculation system 706.

Using flow switchers 816 to pass the fluid through the annular regionwhile the fluid is adjacent to treatment area 730 promotes increasedheat transfer to the treatment area due in part to the large heattransfer area of outer conduit 810. Using flow switchers 816 to pass thefluid through the inner conduit when adjacent to overburden 400 mayreduce heat losses to the overburden. Additionally, heaters 412 may beinsulated adjacent to overburden 400 to reduce heat losses to theformation.

FIG. 194 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of aconduit-in-conduit heater 412 adjacent to overburden 400. Insulation 820may be positioned between outer conduit 810 and inner conduit 812.Liquid heat transfer fluid may flow through the center of inner conduit812. Insulation 820 may be a highly porous insulation layer thatinhibits radiation at high temperatures (for example, temperatures above500° C.) and allows flow of a secondary heat transfer fluid duringpreheating and/or flow assurance stages of heating. During normaloperation, flow of fluid through the annular region between outerconduit 810 and inner conduit 812 adjacent to overburden 400 may bestopped or inhibited.

Insulating sleeve 722 may be positioned around outer conduit 810.Insulating sleeves 722 on each side of a u-shaped heater may be securelycoupled to outer conduit 810 over a long length when the system is notheated so that the insulating sleeves on each side of the u-shapedwellbore are able to support the weight of the heater. Insulating sleeve722 may include an outer member that is a structural member that allowsheater 412 to be lifted to accommodate thermal expansion of the heater.Casing 398 may surround insulating sleeve 722. Insulating cement 740 maycouple casing 398 to overburden 400. Insulating cement 740 may be a lowthermal conductivity cement that reduces conductive heat losses. Forexample, insulating cement 740 may be a vermiculite/cement aggregate. Anon-reactive gas may be introduced into gap 744 between insulatingsleeve 722 and casing 398 to inhibit formation fluid from rising in thewellbore and/or to provide an insulating gas blanket.

FIG. 195 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of circulation system 706that supplies liquid heat transfer fluid to conduit-in-conduit heaterspositioned in the formation (for example, the heaters depicted in FIG.193). Circulation system 706 may include heat supply 708, compressor822, heat exchanger 824, exhaust system 826, liquid storage tank 828,fluid movers 714 (for example, pumps), supply manifold 830, returnmanifold 832, and secondary heat transfer fluid circulation system 834.In certain embodiments, heat supply 708 is a furnace. Fuel for heatsupply 708 may be supplied through fuel line 836. Control valve 838 mayregulate the amount of fuel supplied to heat supply 708 based on thetemperature of hot heat transfer fluid as measured by temperaturemonitor 840.

Oxidant for heat supply 708 may be supplied through oxidant line 842.Exhaust from heat supply 708 may pass through heat exchanger 824 toexhaust system 826. Oxidant from compressor 822 may pass through heatexchanger 824 to be heated by the exhaust from heat supply 708.

In some embodiments, valve 844 may be opened during preheating and/orduring start-up of fluid circulation to the heaters to supply secondaryheat transfer fluid circulation system 834 with a heating fluid. In someembodiments, exhaust gas is circulated through the heaters by secondaryheat transfer fluid circulation system 834. In some embodiments, theexhaust gas passes through one or more heat exchangers of secondary heattransfer fluid circulation system 834 to heat fluid that is circulatedthrough the heaters.

During preheating, secondary heat transfer fluid circulation system 834may supply secondary heat transfer fluid to the inner conduit of theheaters and/or to the annular region between the inner conduit and theouter conduit. Line 846 may provide secondary heat transfer fluid to thepart of supply manifold 830 that supplies fluid to the inner conduits ofthe heaters. Line 848 may provide secondary heat transfer fluid to thepart of supply manifold 830 that supplies fluid to the annular regionsbetween the inner conduits and the outer conduits of the heaters. Line850 may return secondary heat transfer fluid from the part of the returnmanifold 832 that returns fluid from the inner conduits of the heaters.Line 852 may return secondary heat transfer fluid from the part of thereturn manifold 832 that returns fluid from the annular regions of theheaters. Valves 854 of secondary heat transfer fluid circulation system834 may allow or stop secondary heat transfer flow to or from supplymanifold 830 and/or return manifold 832. During preheating, all valves854 may be open. During the flow assurance stage of heating, valves 854for line 846 and for line 850 may be closed, and valves 854 for line 848and line 852 may be open. Liquid heat transfer fluid from heat supply708 may be provided to the part of supply manifold 830 that suppliesfluid to the inner conduits of the heaters during the flow assurancestage of heating. Liquid heat transfer fluid may return to liquidstorage tank 828 from the portion of return manifold 832 that returnsfluid from the inner conduits of the heaters. During normal operation,all valves 854 may be closed.

In some embodiments, secondary heat transfer fluid circulation system834 is a mobile system. Once normal flow of heat transfer fluid throughthe heaters is established, the mobile secondary heat transfer fluidcirculation system 834 may be moved and attached to another circulationsystem that has not been initiated.

During normal operation, liquid storage tank 828 may receive heattransfer fluid from return manifold 832. Liquid storage tank 828 may beinsulated and heat traced. Heat tracing may include steam circulationsystem 856 that circulates steam through coils in liquid storage tank828. Steam passed through the coils maintains heat transfer fluid inliquid storage tank 828 at a desired temperature or in a desiredtemperature range.

Fluid movers 714 may move liquid heat transfer fluid from liquid storagetank 828 to heat supply 708. In some embodiments, fluid movers 714 aresubmersible pumps that are positioned in liquid storage tank 828. Havingfluid movers 714 in storage tanks may keep the pumps at temperatureswell within the operating temperature limits of the pumps. Also, theheat transfer fluid may function as a lubricant for the pumps. One ormore redundant pump systems may be placed in liquid storage tank 828. Aredundant pump system may be used if the primary pump system shuts downor needs to be serviced.

During start-up of heat supply 708, valves 858 may direct liquid heattransfer fluid to liquid storage tank. After preheating of a heater inthe formation is completed, valves 858 may be reconfigured to directliquid heat transfer fluid to the part of supply manifold 830 thatsupplies the liquid heat transfer fluid to the inner conduit of thepreheated heater. Return liquid heat transfer fluid from the innerconduit of a preheated return conduit may pass through the part ofreturn manifold 832 that receives heat transfer fluid that has passedthrough the formation and directs the heat transfer fluid to liquidstorage tank 828.

To begin using fluid circulation system 706, liquid storage tank 828 maybe heated using steam circulation system 856. The heat transfer fluidmay be added to liquid storage tank 828. The heat transfer fluid may beadded as solid particles that melt in liquid storage tank 828 or liquidheat transfer fluid may be added to the liquid storage tank. Heat supply708 may be started, and fluid movers 714 may be used to circulate heattransfer fluid from liquid storage tank 828 to the heat supply and back.Secondary heat transfer fluid circulation system 834 may be used to heatheaters in the formation that are coupled to supply manifolds 830 andreturn manifolds 832. Supply of secondary heat transfer fluid to theportion of supply manifold 830 that feeds the inner conduits of theheaters may be stopped. The return of secondary heat transfer fluid fromthe portion of return manifold that receives heat transfer fluid fromthe inner conduits of the heaters may also be stopped. Heat transferfluid from heat supply 708 may then be directed to the inner conduit ofthe heaters.

The heat transfer fluid may flow through the inner conduits of theheaters to flow switchers that change the flow of fluid from the innerconduits to the annular regions between the inner conduits and the outerconduits. The heat transfer fluid may then pass through flow switchersthat change the flow back to the inner conduits. Valves coupled to theheaters may allow heat transfer fluid flow to the individual heaters tobe started sequentially instead of having the fluid circulation systemsupply heat transfer fluid to all of the heaters at once.

Return manifold 832 receives heat transfer fluid that has passed throughheaters in the formation that are supplied from a second fluidcirculation system. Heat transfer fluid in return manifold 832 may bedirected back into liquid storage tank 828.

During initial heating, secondary heat transfer fluid circulation system834 may continue to circulate secondary heat transfer fluid through theportion of the heater not receiving the heat transfer fluid suppliedfrom heat supply 708. In some embodiments, secondary heat transfer fluidcirculation system 834 directs the secondary heat transfer fluid in thesame direction as the flow of heat transfer fluid supplied from heatsupply 708. In some embodiments, secondary heat transfer fluidcirculation system 834 directs the secondary heat transfer fluid in theopposite direction to the flow of heat transfer fluid supplied from heatsupply 708. The secondary heat transfer fluid may ensure continued flowof the heat transfer fluid supplied from heat supply 708. Flow of thesecondary heat transfer fluid may be stopped when the secondary heattransfer fluid leaving the formation is hotter than the secondary heattransfer fluid supplied to the formation due to heat transfer with theheat transfer fluid supplied from heat supply 708. In some embodiments,flow of secondary heat transfer fluid may be stopped when otherconditions are met, after a selected period of time.

FIG. 196 depicts a schematic representation of a system for providingand removing liquid heat transfer fluid to the treatment area of aformation using gravity and gas lifting as the driving forces for movingthe liquid heat transfer fluid. The liquid heat transfer fluid may be amolten metal or a molten salt. Vessel 860 is elevated above heatexchanger 862. Heat transfer fluid from vessel 860 flows through heattransfer unit 862 to the formation by gravity drainage. In anembodiment, heat exchanger 862 is a tube and shell heat exchanger. Inputstream 864 is a hot fluid (for example, helium) from nuclear reactor866. Exit stream fluid 868 may be sent as a coolant stream to nuclearreactor 866. In some embodiments, the heat exchanger is a furnace, solarcollector, chemical reactor, fuel cell, and/or other high temperaturesource able to supply heat to the liquid heat transfer fluid.

Hot heat transfer fluid from heat exchanger 862 may pass to a manifoldthat provides heat transfer fluid to individual heater legs positionedin the treatment area of the formation. The heat transfer fluid may passto the heater legs by gravity drainage. The heat transfer fluid may passthrough overburden 400 to hydrocarbon containing layer 388 of thetreatment area. The piping adjacent to overburden 400 may be insulated.Heat transfer fluid flows downwards to sump 870.

Gas lift piping may include gas supply line 872 within conduit 874. Gassupply line 872 may enter sump 870. When lift chamber 876 in sump 870fills to a selected level with heat transfer fluid, a gas lift controlsystem operates valves of the gas lift system to lift the heat transferfluid through the space between gas supply line 872 and conduit 874 toseparator 878. Separator 878 may receive heat transfer fluid and liftinggas from a piping manifold that transports the heat transfer fluid andlifting gas from the individual heater legs in the formation. Separator878 separates the lift gas from the heat transfer fluid. The heattransfer fluid is sent to vessel 860.

Conduits 874 from sumps 870 to separator 878 may include one or moreinsulated conductors or other types of heaters. The insulated conductorsor other types of heaters may be placed in conduits 874 and/or bestrapped or otherwise coupled to the outside of the conduits. Theheaters may inhibit densification or solidification of the heat transferfluid in conduits 874 during gas lift from sump 870.

Using molten salts as a heat transfer fluid for in situ heat treatmentprocess has many advantages. Many molten salts will react with certainhydrocarbons, thus, if circulating molten salts are used to heat aportion of a treatment area, a leak in the system which allows moltensalts to contact subsurface hydrocarbons may cause problems. Reaction ofmolten salts with hydrocarbons may disrupt heat transfer systems,decrease permeability in the treatment area, decrease hydrocarbonproduction, and/or impede the flow of hydrocarbons through at least aportion of the treatment area being heated by circulating molten saltheaters.

In some embodiments, electrical conductivity may be used to assess theinception, existence, and/or location of leaks in the heater using heattransfer fluids such as molten salts. A resistance across one or moreconduits of, for example, a conduit-in-conduit heater may be monitoredfor any changes. Changes in the monitored resistance may indicate theinception and/or worsening of a leak in the conduit. The conduitsforming the conduit-in-conduit heater may include a void in the wallsforming the conduits. The void in the walls forming the conduit mayinclude a thermal insulation material positioned in the void. If abreach forms in the conduit walls, heat transfer fluid may enter throughthe breach leaking through to the other side. Some heat transfer fluids,for example molten salts, leaking through the breach in the conduit mayconduct electricity creating a short across the conduit wall. Theelectrical short created by the leaking molten salt may then modify themeasured resistance across the conduit wall in which the breach hasoccurred.

In some embodiments, the electrical resistance of at least one of theconduits of the conduit-in-conduit heaters may be assessed. A presenceof a leak in at least one of the conduits may be assessed based on theassessed resistance. The electrical resistance may be assessedintermittently or on a continuous basis. The electrical resistance maybe assessed for either one or both conduits of the conduit-in-conduitheater. FIG. 197 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment ofvertical conduit-in-conduit heater 412 for use with a heat transferfluid circulation system for heating a portion of a formation (forexample, hydrocarbon layer 388). The heat transfer fluid circulationsystem may provide heat transfer fluid 1430 to inlet conduit 716 ofheater 412. The heat transfer fluid circulation system may receive heattransfer fluid 1430 from outlet conduit heat 718. One or more portionsof conduits 716 and 718 may include insulation 820 positioned betweenthe inner and outer walls of the conduits. Multiple breaches 1432 mayoccur in conduits 716 and 718 through which heat transfer fluid 1430leaks.

In some embodiments, a location of a breach in the conduit may beassessed. The location may be assessed due to the fact that therelationship between the electrical resistance and the depth at whichthe breach has occurred is very linear as is demonstrated in FIGS. 198and 199. FIG. 198 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship(line 1434) of the electrical resistance of an inner conduit of aconduit-in-conduit heater over a depth at which a breach has occurred inthe inner conduit of the conduit-in-conduit heater. FIG. 199 depicts agraphical representation of the relationship (line 1436) of theelectrical resistance of an outer conduit of a conduit-in-conduit heaterover a depth at which a breach has occurred in the outer conduit of theconduit-in-conduit heater. This linear relationship may allow theapproximate depth of a breach in a conduit to be assessed and thereforethe approximate location of the breach in the conduit. Once the locationof a breach is assessed, options for dealing with the breach may bedetermined.

FIG. 200 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of theelectrical resistance of an inner conduit of a conduit-in-conduit heater(line 1438) and the salt block height (line 1440) over an amount ofleaked molten salt. FIG. 201 depicts a graphical representation of therelationship of the electrical resistance of an outer conduit of aconduit-in-conduit heater (line 1442) and the salt block height (line1444) over an amount of leaked molten salt. As demonstrated in FIGS. 200and 201 a small leak in one or more of the conduits in theconduit-in-conduit heater may be detected. For example, a molten saltleak of as little as 0.038 liters may be detected by monitoring theelectrical resistance across a wall of the conduit. FIGS. 200 and 201also demonstrate (lines 1440 and 1444) that even a relatively small leakwill fill a relatively large portion of the annulus space of theconduit-in-conduit heater. For example, 0.038 liters of leaked moltensalt may fill approximately 2.04 m of the inner conduit or approximately0.76 m of the outer conduit.

FIG. 202 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship (line1446) of the electrical resistance of a conduit of a conduit-in-conduitheater once a breach forms over an average temperature of the moltensalt. As FIG. 202 demonstrates, if a breach in one of the conduits ofthe conduit-in-conduit heater does occur the impact on the temperatureis relatively small.

In some embodiments, a gas in combination with, for example, a gasdetection system may be used to detect a breach, and subsequent leaks,in one or more conduits of a conduit-in-conduit heater. One or moregases may be dissolved in the heat transfer fluid, for example a moltensalt. The gas may be dissolved in the molten salt before the molten saltis transferred to the conduit-in-conduit heater (for example, in astorage tank used to store the molten salt). The gas may be dissolved inthe molten salt as the molten salt is injected in the heater. Thedissolved gas may circulate through the heater along with the moltensalt.

In some embodiments, one or more of the gases may include an inert gas(for example, nitrogen, argon, helium, or mixtures thereof). In someembodiments, the gas detection system may include a pressure transduceror a gas analyzer. A breach in a conduit of the heater may result in aleak of at least some of the circulating molten salts in the annulusspace of the conduit. Once the molten salt leaks in the annular space ofthe conduit, at least some of the gas dissolved in the molten salt maybe released from the molten salt in the annular space of the conduit.The annular space may be under reduced pressure (for example, in orderto provide more insulation value) and reduced temperature. The reducedpressure of the annular space may further facilitate the release of thedissolved gas from any molten salts which have leaked in the annularspace. Table 6 shows the solubility of several inert gases includinghelium, argon, and nitrogen in molten nitrates. Solubility of the gas inthe salt may generally scale substantially linearly with partialpressure according to Henry's Law.

TABLE 6 T kH DH [° C.] [mol/ml bar] [kJ/mol] He + NaNO₃ 332 1.86 13.4391 2.32 441 2.80 Ar + NaNO₃ 331 0.64 15.8 410 0.90 440 1.04 N₂ + NaNO₃331 0.50 16.0 390 0.64 449 0.84 He + LiNO₃ 270 1.51 Ar + LiNO₃ 273 0.9114.0 N₂ + LiNO₃ 277 0.73

The gas released from the heater may be detected by the gas detectionsystem. The gas detection system may be coupled to one or more openingsin fluid communication with the annular space of the conduit. Heaterscurrently in use may have preexisting openings which may be adapted toaccommodate the gas detection system. Heaters currently in use may beretrofitted for the currently described leak detection system. FIG. 203depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of vertical heater412 for use with a heat transfer fluid circulation system for heating aportion of a formation (for example, hydrocarbon layer 388) which iscoupled to an inert gas based leak detection system (not depicted).

In some embodiments, the gas detection system may be coupled to aplurality of heaters. Once a heater has formed a breach in one of theconduits, the heater in question may be identified by sequentiallyisolating each heater coupled to the gas detection system. In someembodiments, a leak detection system based upon detection of gases inannular spaces may not be able to assist in assessing the location ofthe breach (as the electrical resistance leak detection system mayallow). In some embodiments, a leak detection system based upondetection of gases in annular spaces may not be able to assist inassessing the formation of breaches in one or more conduits along anyhorizontal portions.

In some embodiments, one or more portions of a conduit of a circulatingmolten salt system develops a leak. After a period of heating, coke mayform and/or infiltrate in the conduit adjacent to the leak. Cokedeposits in one or more conduits in a heater may lead to severalproblems (for example, hot spots and/or heater failure). In someembodiments, an oxidizing fluid may be provided to one or more portionsof the conduit. Oxidizing fluid may include, for example, air orenriched air. Contact of the oxidizing fluid with coke may convert thecoke in the conduit to products that may flow through the conduit.

In some embodiments, oxidizing fluid may be mixed with the molten saltbefore the molten salt is circulated through the heater in theformation. Mixing air with the molten salt may inhibit any significantcoke formation in the conduits. For example, oxidizing fluid may befixed with a molten salt in Heat transfer fluid circulation system 706.In some embodiments, oxidizing fluid may be provided to one or moreconduits of a heater intermittently and/or as needed.

The use of circulating molten salts to heat underground hydrocarboncontaining formations has many advantages relative to other knownmethods of heating a formation. It would be advantageous to be able toshut down a heating system using circulating molten salts in a morecontrolled manner. As opposed to other types of heating systems onecannot simply turn off a heat transfer fluid based heating system. Heattransfer fluid must be removed from the conduits of theconduit-in-conduit heaters during a shut-down procedure. When the heattransfer fluid is molten salt, removal of the salts presents differentchallenges. If the circulating pumps are turned off the molten salt willbegin to cool and solidify clogging the conduits. Due to the fact thatsalts are typically soluble in one or more solvents, one strategy forremoving the salt from the heater conduits is to flush the conduits withan aqueous solution. However, flushing the conduits with an aqueoussolution may take anywhere from days to months depending on thetemperature of the formation. In some embodiments, secondary fluids (forexample, fluids produced during in situ heat treatment and/or conversionprocesses) may be used to flush out salts from the conduits. Due to thetypically higher boiling point of secondary fluids, removing remainingsalts from the conduits may be accomplished faster than using an aqueoussolution (for example, from hours to days instead of days to months). Insome embodiments, a “pig” may be used to push the salts out of theconduits. A pig may include any material or device which will fit withinthe confines of the conduit in conduit heaters such that the pig willmove through the conduit while allowing a minimal amount of salt to passaround the pig as it is conveyed through the conduit. Typically a pig isconveyed through a conduit using hydraulic pressure. Using a pig toremove heat transfer fluids may reduce the shut-down time for thecirculating molten salt heater to a time period measured in hours. Usinga pig to shut-down the heater may include the use of additionalspecialized surface equipment (for example, modified wellheads,specially designed pigging system for high temperature applications). Incertain embodiments, only U-shaped heaters may use a pig during ashut-down procedure. All three shut-down methods have differentadvantages.

Fluids may be used to shut-down circulating molten salt heaters. In someembodiments, compressed gases may be used to shut-down circulatingmolten salt heaters. Compressed gases may combine many of the differentadvantages of the other three shut-down methods.

Using compressed gases to shut-down circulating molten salt heaters mayhave several advantages over using aqueous solutions or secondaryfluids. Using compressed gases may be faster, require fewer surfacesresources, more mobile, and allow for emergency shutdown relative tousing aqueous solutions or secondary fluids. Using compressed gases toshut-down circulating molten salt heaters has several advantages overusing a pig and compressed gases to convey the pig. Using compressedgases may require fewer surfaces resources and have fewer limitations onwhat types of heaters may be shut down relative to using a pig andcompressed gases to convey the pig.

Some of the disadvantages of using compressed gases include reducedefficiency of salt displacement relative to using aqueous solutions orsecondary fluids. In some embodiments, a displacement efficiency of theconveyance of molten salts moving through a conduit heater may bechanged by varying the transient pressure profile. Using compressedgases to convey molten salts may result in different types of flowprofiles. Varying transient pressure profiles may result in variouspressure profiles including, for example, Taylor flow, dispersed bubbleflow, churn flow, or annular flow. Taylor flow may be generallydescribed as a two phase flow pattern such that the gas and molten saltmove through the conduit as separate portions (except for a thin film ofmolten salts along the walls of the conduit between the walls and theportions of gases). Dispersed bubble flow may be generally described asa multiphase flow profile in which the compressed gas moves as smalldispersed bubbles through the molten salt. Churn flow may be generallydescribed as a multiphase flow profile (typically observed innear-vertical pipes) in which large, irregular slugs of gas move up theapproximate center of the conduit, usually carrying droplets of moltensalt with them. Most of the remaining molten salt flows up along theconduit walls. As opposed to Taylor flow, neither phase is continuousand the gas portions are relatively unstable, and take on large,elongated shapes. Churn flow may occur at relatively high gas velocityand as the gas velocity increases, it changes into annular flow. Annularflow may be generally described as a multiphase flow profile in whichthe compressed gas flows in the approximate center of the conduit, andthe molten salt is substantially contained in a thin film on the conduitwall. Annular flow typically occurs at high velocities of the compressedgas, and may be observed in both vertical and horizontal wells.

Taylor flow may result in maximum displacement efficiency. In someembodiments, modifying the transient pressure profile of compressedgases may allow a maximum displacement efficiency (for example, a Taylorflow profile) to be achieved during shut-down of circulating molten saltheaters. FIGS. 204-208 depict graphical representations on the effect ofvarying the compressed air mass flow rate (from 1 lb/s (lines 1448) to 2lb/s (lines 1450) to 10 lb/s (lines 1452)) when using compressed gas toshut-down circulating molten salt heaters. FIG. 204 depicts a graphicalrepresentation of the relationship of the salt displacement efficiencyover time for three different compressed air mass flow rates. FIG. 205depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of the air volumeflow rate at inlet of a conduit over time for the three differentcompressed air mass flow rates. FIG. 206 depicts a graphicalrepresentation of the relationship of the compressor discharge pressureover time for the three different compressed air mass flow rates. FIG.207 depicts a graphical representation of the relationship of the saltvolume fraction at outlet of a conduit over time for the three differentcompressed air mass flow rates. FIG. 208 depicts a graphicalrepresentation of the relationship of the salt volume flow rate atoutlet of a conduit over time for the three different compressed airmass flow rates. FIGS. 204-208 show that higher compressed air mass flowrates are desirable as regards quickly and efficiently shutting downcirculating molten salt heaters.

FIG. 209 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment ofcompressed gas shut-down system 1454. In some embodiments, compressedgas shut-down system 1454 may include storage tanks 1456A-C, heatexchangers 1458, compressors 1460, pumps 1462, and piping 1464A-B.Compressor 1460 may compress gas to be used in shut-down system 1454.Gases may include air, inert gases, byproducts of subsurface treatmentprocesses, or mixtures thereof. Compressed gases are transferred fromcompressor 1460 to storage tank 1456A. Compressed air may be transferredfrom storage tank 1456A using piping 1464A to a first end of U-shapedcirculating molten salt heaters 412 positioned in formation 492. Thecompressed air pushes molten salt out of a second end of U-shapedcirculating molten salt heaters 412 through piping 1464B to storage tank1456B. In some embodiments, storage tank 1456B may include a surgevessel which functions to absorb process disturbance and/or momentaryunexpected flow changes. The surge vessel may allow compressed air toescape while inhibiting removed salts from escaping. Molten salts may beconveyed from storage tank 1456B through heat exchanger 1458 to storagetank 1456C. Salts in storage tanks 1456C may be conveyed using pumps1462 to a second set of U-shaped circulating molten salt heaters to heatanother formation and/or a second portion of the formation. Compressedgas shut-down system 1454 depicted in FIG. 209 includes two independentsystems. The two shut-down systems may be operated independently of eachother.

A portion of the heat input into a treatment area using circulated heattransfer fluid may be recovered after the in situ heat treatment processis completed. Initially, the same heat transfer fluid used to heat thetreatment area may be circulated through the formation without the heatsource reheating the heat transfer fluid such that the heat transferfluid absorbs heat from the treatment area. The heat transfer fluidheated by the treatment area may be circulated through an adjacentunheated treatment area to begin heating the unheated treatment area. Insome embodiments, the heat transfer fluid heated by the treatment areapasses through a heat exchanger to heat a second heat transfer fluidthat is used to begin heating the unheated treatment area.

In some embodiments, a different heat transfer fluid than the heattransfer fluid used to heat the treatment area may be used to recoverheat from the formation. A different heat transfer fluid may be usedwhen the heat transfer fluid used to heat the treatment area has thepotential to solidify in the piping during recovery of heat from thetreatment area. The different heat transfer fluid may be a low meltingtemperature salt or salt mixture, steam, carbon dioxide, or a syntheticoil (for example, DowTherm or Therminol).

In some embodiments, initial heating of the formation may be performedusing circulated molten solar salt (NaNO₃-KNO₃) flowing through conduitsin the formation. Heating may be continued until fluid communicationbetween heater wells and producer wells is established and a relativelylarge amount of coke develops around the heater wells. Circulation maybe stopped and one or more of the conduits may be perforated. In anembodiment, the heater includes a perforated outer conduit and an innerliner that is chemically resistant to the heat transfer fluid. When heattransfer fluid is stopped, the liner may be withdrawn or chemicallydissolved to allow fluid flow from the heater into the formation. Inother embodiments, perforation guns may be used in the piping after flowof circulated heat transfer fluid is stopped. Nitrate salts or otheroxidizers may be introduced into the formation through the perforations.The nitrate salts or other oxidizers may oxidize the coke to finishheating the reservoir to desired temperatures. The concentration andamount of nitrate salts or other oxidizers introduced into the formationmay be controlled to control the heating of the formation. Oxidizing thecoke in the formation may heat the formation efficiently and reduce thetime for heating the formation to a desired temperature. Oxidationproduct gases may convectively transfer heat in the formation andprovide a gas drive that moves formation fluid towards the productionwells.

In some embodiments, a subsurface hydrocarbon containing formation maybe treated by the in situ heat treatment process to produce mobilizedand/or pyrolyzed products from the formation. A significant amount ofcarbon in the form of coke and/or residual oil may remain in portions ofthe formation when production of fluids from the portions is completed.In some embodiments, the coke and/or residual oil in the portions may beutilized to produce heat and/or additional products from the formation.

In some embodiments, an oxidizing fluid (for example, air, oxygenenriched air, other oxidants) may be introduced into a treatment areathat has been treated to react with the coke and/or residual oil in theportion. The temperature of the treatment area may be sufficiently hotto support burning of the coke and/or residual oil without additionalenergy input from heaters. In some embodiments, additional heat fromheaters and/or other heat sources may be used to add additional energyto ensure continued combustion and/or initiate combustion of the cokeand/or residual oil. In some embodiments, sufficient oxidizing fluid maybe introduced into a wellbore such that the combustion process proceedscontinuously. The oxidation of the coke and/or residual oil maysignificantly heat the treatment area. Some of the heat may transfer toportions of the formation adjacent to the treatment area. Thetransferred heat may mobilize and/or pyrolyze fluids in the portions ofthe formation adjacent to the treatment area. The mobilized and/orpyrolyzed fluids may flow to and be produced from production wells nearthe perimeter of the treatment area.

Products (for example, gases) produced from the formation heated bycombusting coke and/or residual oil in the formation may be at hightemperature. In some embodiments, the hot gases may be utilized in anenergy recovery cycle (for example, a Kalina cycle or a Rankine cycle)to produce electricity.

In certain embodiments, thermal energy from the combustion products arecollected and used for a variety of applications. Thermal energy may beused to generate electricity as previously mentioned. In someembodiments, however, collected thermal energy is used to heat a secondportion of the formation for the purpose of conducting the in situ heattreatment process on the second portion of the formation. In someembodiments, thermal energy is used to heat a second formationsubstantially adjacent to the first formation.

In certain embodiment, thermal energy from the combustion products andregions heated by combustion is transferred directly to a heat transferfluid. The thermal energy collected in this way may be used directly toheat a second portion of the formation for the purpose of conducting thein situ heat treatment process on the second portion of the formation.In some embodiments, thermal energy is used to heat a second formationsubstantially adjacent to the first formation.

Recovering energy in the form of thermal energy from the formation (forexample, a previously treated formation) may conserve energy and, thus,decrease overall production costs for hydrocarbon production from aparticular formation. The energy collected from the combustion of cokeand/or residual hydrocarbons may be greater than the energy required tocombust the coke/residual hydrocarbons and collect the resulting thermalenergy. For example, in a portion of a formation that has undergone insitu upgrading for eight years, energy that results from combustion ofthe coke/residual hydrocarbons may be about 1.4 times the energy that isrequired to combust the coke/residual hydrocarbons and collect theenergy. Even with as much as 20% energy loss to the overburden duringthe process compounded with about a 15% efficiency of energy transfer toelectricity, one may collect up to 17% of the energy required fortreating the formation.

In certain embodiments, the quantity of energy recovered from thesubsurface formation is considerable, as the data in TABLE 7demonstrates. A formation that has undergone an in situ upgradingprocess and/or an in situ upgrading process heating cycle for 6 yearsmay yield, upon combustion of the remaining hydrocarbons and coke, a netenergy gain of 63% relative to the energy required for the heatingcycle. A formation which has undergone an in situ upgrading processand/or an in situ upgrading process heating cycle for 8 years may yield,upon combustion of the remaining hydrocarbons and coke, a net energygain of 29% relative to the energy required for the heating cycle. Thenet energy gain is lower for the formation having undergone an 8 yearheating cycle for several reasons, as demonstrated in TABLE 7: the heatinput required per pattern is greater than for a 6 year heating cycle;and, due to the longer heating cycle, there is considerably lessresidual hydrocarbons to combust for energy recovery relative to the 6year heating cycle.

TABLE 7 Duration of heating (years) 6 8 Heat input required/pattern (10⁹BTU) 3.2 3.9 Combustion: coke % of heat required 13 18 Combustion:residual hydrocarbons % of heat required 358 152 Total (% of heatrequired, assuming 50% 186 85 recovery) Energy required for aircompression (% of 123 56 heat required, assuming 50% excess airrequired, at 85% efficiency) Net energy gain (% of heat required) 63 29

In some embodiments, a method for recovering energy from the subsurfacehydrocarbon containing formation includes introducing the oxidizingfluid in at least a portion of the formation. The oxidizing fluid may beintroduced into at least one wellbore positioned in the portion of theformation. The portion, or treatment area, of the formation may havebeen previously subjected to the in situ heat treatment process. Thetreatment area may include elevated levels of coke. In some embodiments,the treatment area is substantially adjacent or surrounding thewellbore.

The oxidizing fluid may be used to increase the pressure in thewellbore. Increasing the pressure in the wellbore may move the oxidizingfluid through at least a majority of the treatment area. In someembodiments, increasing the pressure in the wellbore moves the oxidizingfluid past the treatment area such that the treatment area issubstantially inundated with oxidizing fluid. Inundation with oxidizingfluid may increase the efficiency of the combustion process ensuringthat a greater majority of the coke and/or residual oil in the treatmentarea is consumed during the combustion process. FIG. 210 depicts an endview representation of an embodiment of wellbore 490 in treatment area730 undergoing a combustion process. In FIG. 210, oxidizing fluid 678 isbeing conveyed down wellbore 490 and through treatment area 730.

Upon initiating combustion in the treatment area and pressurizing thewellbore to help ensure the combustion process extends throughout thetreatment area, the pressure in the wellbore may be decreased.Decreasing the pressure in the wellbore may draw heated fluids from thetreatment area in the wellbore. Heated fluids drawn in the wellbore maybe collected. Heated fluids may include heated gases such as unconsumedheated oxidizing fluids and/or heated combustion products. In someembodiments, heated fluids include heated liquid hydrocarbons. FIG. 211depicts an end view representation of an embodiment of wellbore 490 intreatment area 730 undergoing fluid removal following the combustionprocess. In FIG. 211, heated fluids 880 are being drawn out of treatmentarea 730 through wellbore 490 during a depressurization cycle.

In some embodiments, the wellbore and/or the treatment area are allowedto rest between pressurization and depressurization cycles for a periodof time. Such a “rest period” may increase the efficiency of thecombustion process, for example, by allowing injected oxidizing fluidsto be more fully consumed before the depressurization and extractionprocess begins.

In some embodiments, heated fluids drawn into the wellbore are conveyedto the surface of the formation. The heated fluids may be conveyed to aheat exchanger at the surface of the formation. The heat exchanger mayfunction to collect thermal energy from the heated fluids. The heatexchanger may transfer thermal energy from the heated fluids collectedfrom the formation to one or more heat transfer fluids. In someembodiments, the heat transfer fluid includes thermally conductive gases(for example, helium, steam, carbon dioxide). In certain embodiments,the heat transfer fluid includes molten salts, molten metals, and/orcondensable hydrocarbons. Thermal energy collected by the heat transferfluid may be used in any number of production and/or heating processes.Heated heat transfer fluid may be transferred to a second portion of theformation. The heat transfer fluid may be used to heat the secondportion, for example, as part of the in situ conversion process. Heatedheat transfer fluid may be transferred to a second formationsubstantially adjacent to the formation in order to heat a portion ofthe second formation.

In some embodiments, the heat transfer fluid is introduced into thewellbore such that heat is transferred from heated fluids in thewellbore to the heat transfer fluid. Thermal energy collected by theheat transfer fluid may be used in any number of production and/orheating processes. FIG. 212 depicts an end view representation of anembodiment of wellbore 490 in a treatment area undergoing a combustionprocess using circulated heat transfer fluids (for example, a circulatedmolten salt) to recover energy from the treatment area. In FIG. 212,oxidizing fluids are conveyed into wellbore 490 through first conduits882. Heated fluids, resulting from the combustion process, are conveyedthrough second conduits 884. Heat transfer fluids used to recover energyare conveyed through heat transfer fluid conduit 742. In the embodimentdepicted in FIG. 212, different conduits are used forinjecting/extracting fluids; however, in some embodiments, the sameconduit(s) may be used for both injecting and/or extracting fluids.Portions of conduits and/or portions of the wellbore that are positionedin the overburden may be insulated to minimize heat losses in theoverburden to increase the efficiency of the energy recovery process.

Within the treatment area itself, the first and/or second conduits mayinclude multiple openings that act as outlets for oxidizing fluidsand/or inlets for heated fluids. The conduits may be positioned in thewellbore during the initial heat treatment cycle (for example, whenheating the formation with molten salt). In some embodiments, beforeinsertion into the formation, the conduits include the multiple openingsto be used during the energy recovery cycle after the initial heatingcycle. In such embodiments, the conduits may be monitored during theinitial heating cycle to ensure the multiple openings remain open and donot get clogged (for example, with coke). In some embodiments,intermittent cycling of a pressurized fluid may be used to keep theopenings unclogged.

In some embodiments, the initial openings in the conduits may be smallerthan required for the combustion process; however, after the initialheat treatment cycle, the openings may be enlarged (for example, with amandrel or other tool) while positioned within the wellbore.

In some embodiments, the conduits are removed after the initial heatingcycle of the formation in order to form the necessary openings in theconduits. The formation may be allowed to cool sufficiently (forexample, by circulating water in the formation) such that the conduitsmay be handled in a safe manner before extracting the conduits.

Energy recovered from the first portion of the formation may be used formany different processes. One example, as mentioned above, is using therecovered energy to heat the second portion of the formation for variousin situ conversion processes. Typically, however, a stable anddependable source of heat for upgrading hydrocarbons in situ is desired.Due to the different pressurization cycles of the coke and/or residualoil combustion process, providing a stable and dependable heat sourcefrom the combustion process may be difficult. In some embodiments, thefluctuations in the energy provided from the combustion process may beovercome by linking several wellbores to the surface heat exchanger. Thewellbores may be at different phases of the combustion cycle such thatover a specified time period the average energy output of the collectionof wellbores is substantially stable and consistent relative to theneeds of the process using the energy.

Issues associated with combusting coke in the treatment area using theaforementioned wellbore pressurization cycles may include overheating ofthe rock and/or wellbore during the combustion process. In certainembodiments, recovering energy from the formation using the combustionof coke enriched treatment areas includes regulating the temperature ofthe wellbore and/or the treatment area. The temperature of the wellboreand/or the adjoining treatment area may be regulated by adjusting theoxidizing fluid flow rate. Adjusting the flow rate of the oxidizingfluid into the wellbore may assist in controlling the combustion processin the treatment area and, thus, the temperature.

In some embodiments, the temperature of the wellbore and/or theadjoining treatment area are regulated by adjusting the difference inpressure between the pressurization and depressurization phases of thecycle. In some embodiments, the temperature of the wellbore and/or theadjoining treatment area are regulated by adjusting the duration of thecombustion process itself. In some embodiments, the temperature of thewellbore and/or the adjoining treatment area are regulated by injectingsteam in the wellbore to reduce and/or control the temperature.

In some embodiments, issues with combusting coke in the treatment areausing the aforementioned wellbore pressurization cycles includeoxidizing fluids injected in the wellbore moving beyond the desiredtreatment area and into the surrounding formation. Oxidizing fluidsmoving beyond the treatment area may decrease the efficiency of thecombustion within the treatment area. In some embodiments, a barrier iscreated in the formation. The barrier may be formed around at least aportion of a perimeter of the treatment area. The barrier may functionto inhibit oxidizing fluids introduced in the wellbore from beingconveyed beyond the treatment area surrounding the wellbore. Creatingthe barrier around the treatment area may function to increase theefficiency of the combustion process. Increasing the efficiency of theprocess may reduce the amount of carbon dioxide produced. Barriers mayresult in the reduction of energy losses due to un-produced fluids.

In some embodiments, a barrier forming fluid is introduced around thetreatment area surrounding the wellbore. The barrier forming fluid mayform the barrier around the treatment area under the proper conditions.The barrier forming fluid may block undesirable flow pathways or reducethe permeability of the oxidizing gases under the proper conditions. Forexample, the barrier forming fluid may function to solidify into a solidbarrier under certain conditions. The barrier forming fluid may functionto solidify at or below a certain temperature range.

In some embodiments, the barrier forming fluid includes a slurry. Theslurry may be formed from solids mixed with a low volatility solvent.Solids included in the barrier forming fluid may include, but not belimited to, ceramics, micas, and/or clays. Low volatility solvents mayinclude polyglycols, high temperature greases or condensablehydrocarbons, and/or other polymeric materials.

Barrier forming fluids may include compositions generally referred to asLost Circulation Materials (LCMs). LCMs are used during drilling ofwellbores to seal off existing (natural) fractures and to preventpropagation of drilling-generated fractures that may be formed duringthe drilling of low pressure zones. When a drill bit encounters anexisting fracture or a fracture-susceptible zone in a subsurfacehydrocarbon containing formation, drilling may be interrupted due to theloss of drilling fluid. Fractures may result in bleed off and subsequentlost circulation of drilling fluid.

LCMs may include waste products, which can be obtained relativelyinexpensively. Waste products may be obtained from food processing (forexample, ground peanut shells, walnut shells, plant fibers, cottonseedhulls) or chemical manufacturing (for example, mica, cellophane, calciumcarbonate, ground rubber, polymeric materials) industries. LCMs may beclassified based on their properties. For example, there are formationbridging LCMs and seepage loss LCMs. Sometimes, more than one LCM typemay be combined and placed down hole, based on the required LCMproperties.

In some embodiments, issues associated with combusting coke in thetreatment area using the aforementioned wellbore pressurization cyclesinclude decreased geological stability in the formation upon removal ofthe coke. As coke is burned and removed during the combustion process,voids may be created in the subsurface formation, especially in thetreatment area. The voids created in the formation may lead toinstability in the formation. Typically, however, a majority of coke inthe formation is concentrated within a relatively small area aroundwellbores. In some embodiments, after combustion of coke within thetreatment area, structural instability is limited to at most about 10feet, at most about 6 feet, or at most about 3 feet from the wellbore.It is estimated that greater than about 80% of the coke in the area tobe treated is typically within 3 feet of the wellbore. If structuralinstability is limited to such a relatively small area of the formation,then the instability may not cause significant hazards if appropriateprecautions are taken. In some embodiments, the extent of any regions ofinstability due to combustion of coke is controlled by limiting the sizeof the treatment area using barriers.

FIG. 213 depicts percentage of the expected coke distribution relativeto a distance from a wellbore in an embodiment of in situ heat treatmentprocess of a treatment area in a formation. Two wellbores 490 arerepresented in FIG. 213 and curves 886-892 are the expected amount ofcoke volume fraction (ft³/ft³) as a function of distance from thewellbore relative to the time period of the initial in situ heattreatment process of the formation. Curve 886 represents a cokedistribution expected after 730 days of in situ heat treatment processin the formation. After 730 days there is expected to be about 47% coke,most of which is within about 3 feet of the wellbore. Curve 888represents a coke distribution expected after 1460 days of in situ heattreatment process in the formation. After 1460 days there is expected tobe about 94% coke, most of which is within about 3 feet of the wellbore.Curve 890 represents a coke distribution expected after 2190 days of insitu heat treatment process in the formation. After 2190 days there isexpected to be about 99% coke, most of which is within about 10 feet ofthe wellbore. Curve 892 represents a coke distribution expected after2920 days of in situ heat treatment process in the formation. After 2920days there is expected to be about 99% coke, most of which is withinabout 10 feet-20 of the wellbore. Curves 888-892 demonstrate that thelonger the in situ heat treatment process is continued, the further awayfrom the wellbore the coke begins to accumulate.

In some embodiments, nuclear energy is used to heat the heat transferfluid used in a circulation system to heat a portion of the formation.For example, heat supply 708 in FIG. 165 may be a pebble bed reactor orother type of nuclear reactor, such as a light water reactor or afissile metal hydride reactor. The use of nuclear energy provides a heatsource with little or no carbon dioxide emissions. Also, in someembodiments, the use of nuclear energy is more efficient because energylosses resulting from the conversion of heat to electricity andelectricity to heat are avoided by directly utilizing the heat producedfrom the nuclear reactions without producing electricity.

In some embodiments, a nuclear reactor heats a heat transfer fluid suchas helium. For example, helium flows through a pebble bed reactor, andheat transfers to the helium. The helium may be used as the heattransfer fluid to heat the formation. In some embodiments, the nuclearreactor heats helium, and the helium is passed through a heat exchangerto provide heat to another heat transfer fluid used to heat theformation. The nuclear reactor may include a pressure vessel thatcontains encapsulated enriched uranium dioxide fuel. Helium may be usedas a heat transfer fluid to remove heat from the nuclear reactor. Heatmay be transferred in a heat exchanger from the helium to the heattransfer fluid used in the circulation system. The heat transfer fluidused in the circulation system may be carbon dioxide, a molten salt, orother fluids. It is of course possible that a heat transfer fluid maynot actually be a fluid at certain temperatures. A heat transfer fluidmay have many of the properties of a solid at lower temperatures and afluid at higher temperatures. Pebble bed reactor systems are available,for example, from PBMR Ltd. (Centurion, South Africa).

FIG. 214 depicts a schematic diagram of a system that uses nuclearenergy to heat treatment area 730. The system may include helium systemgas mover 894, nuclear reactor 896, heat exchanger unit 898, and heattransfer fluid mover 900. Helium system gas mover 894 may blow, pump, orcompress heated helium from nuclear reactor 896 to heat exchanger unit898. Helium from heat exchanger unit 898 may pass through helium systemgas mover 894 to nuclear reactor 896. Helium from nuclear reactor 896may be at a temperature between about 900° C. and about 1000° C. Heliumfrom helium gas mover 894 may be at a temperature between about 500° C.and about 600° C. Heat transfer fluid mover 900 may draw heat transferfluid from heat exchanger unit 898 through treatment area 730. Heattransfer fluid may pass through heat transfer fluid mover 900 to heatexchanger unit 898. The heat transfer fluid may be carbon dioxide, amolten salt, and/or other fluids. The heat transfer fluid may be at atemperature between about 850° C. and about 950° C. after exiting heatexchanger unit 898.

In some embodiments, the system includes auxiliary power unit 902. Insome embodiments, auxiliary power unit 902 generates power by passingthe helium from heat exchanger unit 898 through a generator to makeelectricity. The helium may be sent to one or more compressors and/orheat exchangers to adjust the pressure and temperature of the heliumbefore the helium is sent to nuclear reactor 896. In some embodiments,auxiliary power unit 902 generates power using a heat transfer fluid(for example, ammonia or aqua ammonia). Helium from heat exchanger unit898 may be sent to additional heat exchanger units to transfer heat tothe heat transfer fluid. The heat transfer fluid may be taken through apower cycle (such as a Kalina cycle) to generate electricity. In anembodiment, nuclear reactor 896 is a 400 MW reactor and auxiliary powerunit 902 generates about 30 MW of electricity.

FIG. 215 depicts a schematic elevational view of an arrangement for anin situ heat treatment process. Wellbores (which may be u-shaped or inother shapes) may be formed in the formation to define treatment areas730A, 730B, 730C, 730D. Additional treatment areas could be formed tothe sides of the shown treatment areas. Treatment areas 730A, 730B,730C, 730D may have widths of over 300 m, 500 m, 1000 m, or 1500 m. Wellexits and entrances for the wellbores may be formed in well openingsarea 904. Rail lines 906 may be formed along sides of treatment areas730. Warehouses, administration offices, and/or spent fuel storagefacilities may be located near ends of rail lines 906. Facilities 908may be formed at intervals along spurs of rail lines 906. Facilities 908may include a nuclear reactor, compressors, heat exchanger units, and/orother equipment needed for circulating hot heat transfer fluid to thewellbores. Facilities 908 may also include surface facilities fortreating formation fluid produced from the formation. In someembodiments, heat transfer fluid produced in facility 908′ may bereheated by the reactor in facility 908″ after passing through treatmentarea 730A. In some embodiments, each facility 908 is used to provide hottreatment fluid to wells in one half of the treatment area 730 adjacentto the facility. Facilities 908 may be moved by rail to another facilitysite after production from a treatment area is completed.

In some embodiments, nuclear energy is used to directly heat a portionof a subsurface formation. The portion of the subsurface formation maybe part of a hydrocarbon treatment area. As opposed to using a nuclearreactor facility to heat a heat transfer fluid, which is then providedto the subsurface formation to heat the subsurface formation, one ormore self-regulating nuclear heaters may be positioned underground todirectly heat the subsurface formation. The self-regulating nuclearreactor may be positioned in or proximate to one or more tunnels.

In some embodiments, treatment of the subsurface formation requiresheating the formation to a desired initial upper range (for example,between about 250° C. and 350° C.). After heating the subsurfaceformation to the desired temperature range, the temperature may bemaintained in the range for a desired time (for example, until apercentage of hydrocarbons have been pyrolyzed or an average temperaturein the formation reaches a selected value). As the formation temperaturerises, the heater temperature may be slowly lowered over a period oftime. Currently, certain nuclear reactors described herein (for example,nuclear pebble bed reactors), upon activation, reach a naturaltemperature output limit of about 900° C., eventually decaying as theuranium-235 fuel is depleted and resulting in lower temperaturesproduced over time at the heater. The natural power output curve ofcertain nuclear reactors (for example, nuclear pebble bed reactors) maybe used to provide a desired heating versus time profile for certainsubsurface formations.

In some embodiments, nuclear energy is provided by a self-regulatingnuclear reactor (for example, a pebble bed reactor or a fissile metalhydride reactor). The self-regulating nuclear reactor may not exceed acertain temperature based upon its design. The self-regulating nuclearreactor may be substantially compact relative to traditional nuclearreactors. The self-regulating nuclear reactor may be, for example,approximately 2 m, 3 m, or 5 m square or even less in size. Theself-regulating nuclear reactor may be modular.

FIG. 216 depicts a schematic representation of self-regulating nuclearreactor 910. In some embodiments, the self-regulating nuclear reactorincludes fissile metal hydride 912. The fissile metal hydride mayfunction as both fuel for the nuclear reaction as well as a moderatorfor the nuclear reaction. A core of the nuclear reactor may include ametal hydride material. The temperature driven mobility of the hydrogenisotope contained in the hydride may function to control the nuclearreaction. If the temperature increases above a set point in core 914 ofself-regulating nuclear reactor 910, a hydrogen isotope dissociates fromthe hydride and escapes out of the core and the power productiondecreases. If the core temperature decreases, the hydrogen isotopereassociates with the fissile metal hydride reversing the process. Insome embodiments, the fissile metal hydride may be in a powdered form,which allows hydrogen to more easily permeate the fissile metal hydride.

Due to its basic design, the self-regulating nuclear reactor may includefew, if any, moving parts associated with the control of the nuclearreaction itself. The small size and simple construction of theself-regulating nuclear reactor may have distinct advantages, especiallyrelative to conventional commercial nuclear reactors used commonlythroughout the world today. Advantages may include relative ease ofmanufacture, transportability, security, safety, and financialfeasibility. The compact design of self-regulating nuclear reactors mayallow for the reactor to be constructed at one facility and transportedto a site of use, such as a hydrocarbon containing formation. Uponarrival and installation, the self-regulating nuclear reactor may beactivated.

Self-regulating nuclear reactors may produce thermal power on the orderof tens of megawatts per unit. Two or more self-regulating nuclearreactors may be used at the hydrocarbon containing formation.Self-regulating nuclear reactors may operate at a fuel temperatureranging between about 450° C. and about 900° C., between about 500° C.and about 800° C., or between about 550° C. and about 650° C. Theoperating temperature may be in the range between about 550° C. andabout 600° C. The operating temperature may be in the range betweenabout 500° C. and about 650° C.

Self-regulating nuclear reactors may include energy extraction system916 in core 914. Energy extraction system 916 may function to extractenergy in the form of heat produced by the activated nuclear reactor.The energy extraction system may include a heat transfer fluid thatcirculates through piping 916A and 916B. At least a portion of thetubing may be positioned in the core of the nuclear reactor. A fluidcirculation system may function to continuously circulate heat transferfluid through the piping. Density and volume of piping positioned in thecore may be dependent on the enrichment of the fissile metal hydride.

In some embodiments, the energy extraction system includes alkali metal(for example, potassium) heat pipes. Heat pipes may further simplify theself-regulating nuclear reactor by eliminating the need for mechanicalpumps to convey a heat transfer fluid through the core. Anysimplification of the self-regulating nuclear reactor may decrease thechances of any malfunctions and increase the safety of the nuclearreactor. The energy extraction system may include a heat exchangercoupled to the heat pipes. Heat transfer fluids may convey thermalenergy from the heat exchanger.

The dimensions of the nuclear reactor may be determined by theenrichment of the fissile metal hydride. Nuclear reactors with a higherenrichment result in smaller relative reactors. Proper dimensions may beultimately determined by particular specifications of a hydrocarboncontaining formation and the formation's energy needs. In someembodiments, the fissile metal hydride is diluted with a fertilehydride. The fertile hydride may be formed from a different isotope ofthe fissile portion. The fissile metal hydride may include the fissilehydride U²³⁵ and the fertile hydride may include the isotope U²³⁸. Insome embodiments, the core of the nuclear reactor may include a nuclearfuel formed from about 5% of U²³⁵ and about 95% of U²³⁸.

Other combinations of fissile metal hydrides mixed with fertile ornon-fissile hydrides will also work. The fissile metal hydride mayinclude plutonium. Plutonium's low melting temperature (about 640° C.)makes the hydride particles less attractive as a reactor fuel to power asteam generator, but may be useful in other applications requiring lowerreactor temperatures. The fissile metal hydride may include thoriumhydride. Thorium permits higher temperature operation of the reactorbecause of its high melting temperature (about 1755° C.). In someembodiments, different combinations of fissile metal hydrides are usedin order to achieve different energy output parameters.

In some embodiments, nuclear reactor 910 may include one or morehydrogen storage containers 918. A hydrogen storage container mayinclude one or more non-fissile hydrogen absorbing materials to absorbthe hydrogen expelled from the core. The non-fissile hydrogen absorbingmaterial may include a non-fissile isotope of the core hydride. Thenon-fissile hydrogen absorbing material may have a hydride dissociationpressure close to that of the fissile material.

Core 914 and hydrogen storage containers 918 may be separated byinsulation layer 920. The insulation layer may function as a neutronreflector to reduce neutron leakage from the core. The insulation layermay function to reduce thermal feedback. The insulation layer mayfunction to protect the hydrogen storage containers from being heated bythe nuclear core (for example, with radiative heating or with convectiveheating from the gas within the chamber).

The effective steady-state temperature of the core may be controlled bythe ambient hydrogen gas pressure. The ambient hydrogen gas pressure maybe controlled by the temperature at which the non-fissile hydrogenabsorbing material is maintained. The temperature of the fissile metalhydride may be independent of the amount of energy being extracted. Theenergy output may be dependent on the ability of the energy extractionsystem to extract the power from the nuclear reactor.

Hydrogen gas in the reactor core may be monitored for purity andperiodically repressurized to maintain the correct quantity and isotopiccontent. In some embodiments, the hydrogen gas is maintained via accessto the core of the nuclear reactor through one or more pipes (forexample, pipes 922A and 922B). The temperature of the self-regulatingnuclear reactor may be controlled by controlling a pressure of hydrogensupplied to the self-regulating nuclear reactor. The pressure may beregulated based upon the temperature of the heat transfer fluid at oneor more points (for example, at the point where the heat transfer fluidenters one or more wellbores). In some embodiments, the pressure may beregulated, and therefore the thermal energy produced by theself-regulating nuclear reactor, based on one or more conditionsassociated with the formation being treated. Formation conditions mayinclude, for example, temperature of a portion of the formation, type offormation (for example, coal or tar sands), and/or type of processingmethod being applied to the formation.

In some embodiments, the nuclear reaction occurring in theself-regulating nuclear reactor may be controlled by introducing aneutron-absorbing gas. The neutron-absorbing gas may, in sufficientquantities, quench the nuclear reaction in the self-regulating nuclearreactor (ultimately reducing the temperature of the reactor to ambienttemperature). Neutron-absorbing gases may include xenon¹³⁵.

In some embodiments, the nuclear reaction of an activatedself-regulating nuclear reactor is controlled using control rods.Control rods may be positioned at least partially in at least a portionof the nuclear core of the self-regulating nuclear reactor. Control rodsmay be formed from one or more neutron-absorbing materials.Neutron-absorbing materials may include, but not be limited to, silver,indium, cadmium, boron, cobalt, hafnium, dysprosium, gadolinium,samarium, erbium, and/or europium.

Currently, self-regulating nuclear reactors described herein, uponactivation, reach a natural temperature output limit of about 900° C.,eventually decaying as the fuel is depleted. The natural power outputcurve of self-regulating nuclear reactors may be used to provide adesired heating versus time profile for certain subsurface formations.

In some embodiments, self-regulating nuclear reactors may have a naturalenergy output which decays at a rate of about 1/E (E is sometimesreferred to as Euler's number and is equivalent to about 2.71828). Insome embodiments, self-regulating nuclear reactors may have a naturalpower output that decays to 1/E of the initial power in a period of timeof about 4 years to about 8 years. Typically, once a formation has beenheated to a desired temperature, less heat is required and the amount ofthermal energy put into the formation in order to heat the formation isreduced over time. In some embodiments, heat input to at least a portionof the formation over time approximately correlates to a rate of decayof the power from the self-regulating nuclear reactor. Due to thenatural decay of at least some self-regulating nuclear reactors, heatingsystems may be designed such that the heating systems take advantage ofthe natural rate of decay of the power from a nuclear reactor. Heatingsystems typically include two or more heaters. Heaters are typicallypositioned in wellbores placed throughout the formation. Wellbores mayinclude, for example, u-shaped and L-shaped wellbores or other shapes ofwellbores. In some embodiments, spacing between wellbores is determinedbased on the decay rate of the power output of self-regulating nuclearreactors.

The self-regulating nuclear reactor may initially provide, to at least aportion of the wellbores, an power output of about 300 watts/foot; andthereafter decreasing over a predetermined time period to about 120watts/foot. The predetermined time period may be determined by thedesign of the self-regulating nuclear reactor itself (for example, fuelused in the nuclear core as well as the enrichment of the fuel). Thenatural decrease in power output may match power injection versus timedependence of the formation. Either variable (for example, power outputand/or power injection) may be adjusted so that the two variables atleast approximately correlate or match. The self-regulating nuclearreactor may be designed to decay over a period of 4-9 years, 5-7 years,or about 7 years. The decay period of the self-regulating nuclearreactor may correspond to an IUP (in situ upgrading process) and/or anICP (in situ conversion process) heating cycle.

In some embodiments, spacing between heater wellbores depends on a rateof decay of one or more nuclear reactors used to provide power. In someembodiments, spacing between heater wellbores ranges between about 8meters and about 11 meters, between about 9 meters and about 10 meters,or between about 9.4 meters and about 9.8 meters.

In certain situations, it may be advantageous to continue a particularlevel of power output of the self-regulating nuclear reactor for alonger period than the natural decay of the fuel material in the nuclearcore would normally allow. In some embodiments, in order to keep thelevel of output within a desired range, a second self-regulating nuclearreactor may be coupled to the formation being treated (for example,being heated). The second self-regulating nuclear reactor may, in someembodiments, have a decayed power output. The power output of the secondreactor may have already decreased due to prior use. The power output ofthe two self-regulating nuclear reactors may be substantially equivalentto the initial power output of the first self-regulating nuclear reactorand/or a desired power output. Additional self-regulating nuclearreactors may be coupled to the formation as needed to achieve thedesired power output. Such a system may advantageously increase theeffective useful lifetime of the self-regulating nuclear reactors.

The effective useful lifetime of self-regulating nuclear reactors may beextended by using the thermal energy produced by the nuclear reactor toproduce steam which, depending upon the formation and/or systems used,may require far less thermal energy than other uses outlined herein.Steam may be used for a number of purposes including, but not limitedto, producing electricity, producing hydrogen on site, convertinghydrocarbons, and/or upgrading hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons may beconverted and/or mobilized in situ by injecting the produced steam inthe formation.

A product stream (for example, a stream including methane, hydrocarbons,and/or heavy hydrocarbons) may be produced from a formation heated withheat transfer fluids that are heated by the nuclear reactor. Steamproduced from heat generated by the nuclear reactor or a second nuclearreactor may be used to reform at least a portion of the product stream.The product stream may be reformed to make at least some molecularhydrogen.

The molecular hydrogen may be used to upgrade at least a portion of theproduct stream. The molecular hydrogen may be injected in the formation.The product stream may be produced from a surface upgrading process. Theproduct stream may be produced from an in situ heat treatment process.The product stream may be produced from a subsurface steam heatingprocess.

At least a portion of the steam may be injected into a subsurface steamheating process. At least some of the steam may be used to reformmethane. At least some of the steam may be used for electricalgeneration. At least a portion of the hydrocarbons in the formation maybe mobilized by the steam and/or heat from the steam.

In some embodiments, self-regulating nuclear reactors may be used toproduce electricity (for example, via steam driven turbines). Theelectricity may be used for any number of applications normallyassociated with electricity. Specifically, the electricity may be usedfor applications associated with in situ heat treatment processesrequiring energy. Electricity from self-regulating nuclear reactors maybe used to provide energy for downhole electric heaters. Electricity maybe used to cool fluid for forming a low temperature barrier (frozenbarrier) around treatment areas, and/or for providing electricity totreatment facilities located at or near the in situ heat treatmentprocess site. In some embodiments, the electricity produced by thenuclear reactors is used to resistively heat the conduits used tocirculate heat transfer fluid through the treatment area. In someembodiments, nuclear power is used to generate electricity that operatescompressors and/or pumps (compressors/pumps provide compressed gases(such as oxidizing fluid and/or fuel to a plurality of oxidizerassemblies) to a treatment area) needed for the in situ heat treatmentprocess. A significant cost of the in situ heat treatment process may beoperating the compressors and/or pumps over the life of the in situ heattreatment process if conventional electrical energy sources are used topower the compressors and/or pumps of the in situ heat treatmentprocess.

Converting heat from self-regulating nuclear reactors into electricitymay not be the most efficient use of the thermal energy produced by thenuclear reactors. In some embodiments, thermal energy produced byself-regulating nuclear reactors is used to directly heat portions of aformation. In some embodiments, one or more self-regulating nuclearreactors are positioned underground in the formation such that thermalenergy produced directly heats at least a portion of the formation. Oneor more self-regulating nuclear reactors may be positioned undergroundin the formation below the overburden thus increasing the efficient useof the thermal energy produced by the self-regulating nuclear reactors.Self-regulating nuclear reactors positioned underground may be encasedin a material for further protection. For example, self-regulatingnuclear reactors positioned underground may be encased in a concretecontainer.

In some embodiments, thermal energy produced by self-regulating nuclearreactors may be extracted using heat transfer fluids. Thermal energyproduced by self-regulating nuclear reactors may be transferred to anddistributed through at least a portion of the formation using heattransfer fluids. Heat transfer fluids may circulate through the pipingof the energy extraction system of the self-regulating nuclear reactor.As heat transfer fluids circulate in and through the core of theself-regulating nuclear reactor, the heat produced from the nuclearreaction heats the heat transfer fluids.

In some embodiments, two or more heat transfer fluids may be employed totransfer thermal energy produced by self-regulating nuclear reactors. Afirst heat transfer fluid may circulate through the piping of the energyextraction system of the self-regulating nuclear reactor. The first heattransfer fluid may pass through a heat exchanger and used to heat asecond heat transfer fluid. The second heat transfer fluid may be usedfor treating hydrocarbon fluids in situ, powering electrolysis unit,and/or for other purposes. The first heat transfer fluid and the secondheat transfer fluid may be different materials. Using two heat transferfluids may reduce the risk of unnecessary exposure of systems andpersonnel to any radiation absorbed by the first heat transfer fluid.Heat transfer fluids that are resistant to absorbing nuclear radiationmay be used (for example, nitrite salts or nitrate salts).

In some embodiments, the energy extraction system includes alkali metal(for example, potassium) heat pipes. Heat pipes may further simplify theself-regulating nuclear reactor by eliminating the need for mechanicalpumps to convey a heat transfer fluid through the core. Anysimplification of the self-regulating nuclear reactor may decrease thechances of any malfunctions and increase the safety of the nuclearreactor. The energy extraction system may include a heat exchangercoupled to the heat pipes. Heat transfer fluids may convey thermalenergy from the heat exchanger.

Heat transfer fluids may include natural or synthetic oil, molten metal,molten salt, or other types of high temperature heat transfer fluid. Theheat transfer fluid may have a low viscosity and a high heat capacity atnormal operating conditions. When the heat transfer fluid is a moltensalt or other fluid that has the potential to solidify in the formation,piping of the system may be electrically coupled to an electricitysource to resistively heat the piping when needed and/or one or moreheaters may be positioned in or adjacent to the piping to maintain theheat transfer fluid in a liquid state. In some embodiments, an insulatedconductor heater is placed in the piping. The insulated conductor maymelt solids in the pipe.

In some embodiments, heat transfer fluids include molten salts. Moltensalts function well as heat transfer fluids due to their typicallystable nature as a solid and a liquid, their relatively high heatcapacity, and unlike water, their lack of expansion when they solidify.Molten salts have a fairly high melting point and typically a largerange over which the salt is liquid before it reaches a temperature highenough to decompose. Due to the wide variety of salts, a salt with adesirable temperature range may be found. If necessary, a mixture ofdifferent salts may be used in order to achieve a molten salt mixturewith the appropriate properties (for example, an appropriate temperaturerange).

In some embodiments, the molten salt includes a nitrite salt or acombination of nitrite salts. Examples of different nitrite salts mayinclude lithium, sodium, and/or potassium nitrite salts. The molten saltmay include about 15 wt. % to about 50 wt. % potassium nitrite salts andabout 50 wt. % to about 80 wt. % sodium nitrite salts. The molten saltmay include a nitrate salt or a combination of nitrate salts. Examplesof different nitrate salts may include lithium, sodium, and/or potassiumnitrate salts. The molten salt may include about 15 wt. % to about 60wt. % potassium nitrate salts and about 40 wt. % to about 80 wt. %sodium nitrate salts. The molten salt may include a mixture of nitriteand nitrate salts. In some embodiments, the molten salt may includeHITEC and/or HITEC XL which are available from Coastal Chemical Co.,L.L.C. located in Abbeville, La., U.S.A. HITEC may include a eutecticmixture of sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate, and potassium nitrate. HITECmay include a recommended operating temperature range of between about149° C. and about 538° C. HITEC XL may include a eutectic mixture ofcalcium nitrate, sodium nitrate, and potassium nitrate. In someembodiments, a manufacturing facility may be used to convert nitritesalts to nitrate salts and/or nitrate salts to nitrite salts.

In some embodiments, the molten salt includes a customized mixture ofdifferent salts that achieve a desirable temperature range. A desirabletemperature range may be dependent upon the formation and/or materialbeing heated with the molten salt. TABLE 8 depicts ranges of differentmixtures of nitrate salts. TABLE 8 demonstrates how varying a ratio of amixture of different salts may affect the salt's usable temperaturerange as a heat transfer fluid. For example, a lithium doped nitratesalt mixture (for example, Li:Na:K:NO₃) has several advantages over thenon lithium doped nitrate salt mixture (for example, Na:K:NO₃). TheLi:Na:K:NO₃ salt mixture may offer a large operating temperature range.The Li:Na:K:NO₃ salt mixture may have a lower melting point, whichreduces the preheating requirements.

TABLE 8 Composition Melting Point Upper Limit NO₃ Salts (wt. %) (° C.)(° C.) Na:K 60:40 230 565 Li:Na:K 12:18:70 200 550 Li:Na:K 20:28:52 150550 Li:Na:K 27:33:40 160 550 Li:Na:K 30:18:52 120 550

In some embodiments, pressurized hot water is used to preheat the pipingin heater wellbores such that molten salts may be used. Preheatingpiping in heater wellbores (for example, to at least approximate themelting point of the molten salt to be used) may inhibit molten saltsfrom freezing and occluding the piping when the molten salt is firstcirculated through the piping. Piping in the heater wellbore may bepreheated using pressurized hot water (for example, water at about 120°C. pressurized to about 15 psi). The piping may be heated until at leasta majority of the piping reaches a temperature approximate to thecirculating hot water temperature. In some embodiments, the hot water isflushed from the piping with air after the piping has been heated to thedesired temperature. A preheated molten salt (for example, Li:Na:K:NO₃)may then be circulated through the piping in the heater wellbores toachieve the desired temperature.

In some embodiments, a salt (for example, Li:Na:K:NO₃) is dissolved inwater to form a salt solution before circulating the salt through pipingin heater wellbores. Dissolving the salt in water may reduce thefreezing point (for example, from about 120° C. to about 0° C.) suchthat the salt may be safely circulated through the piping with littlefear of the salt freezing and obstructing the piping. The salt solution,in some embodiments, is preheated (for example, to about 90° C.) beforecirculating the solution through the piping in heater wellbores. Thesalt solution may be heated at an elevated pressure (for example,greater than about 15 psi) to above the water's boiling point. As thesalt solution is heated to about 120° C., the water from the solutionmay evaporate. The evaporating water may be allowed to vent from theheat transfer fluid circulation system. Eventually, only the anhydrousmolten salt remains to heat the formation.

In some embodiments, preheating of piping in heater wellbores isaccomplished by a heat trace (for example, an electric heat trace). Theheat trace may be accomplished by using a cable and/or running currentdirectly through the pipe. In some embodiments, a relatively thinconductive layer is used to provide the majority of the electricallyresistive heat output of the temperature limited heater at temperaturesup to a temperature at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phasetransformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. Such atemperature limited heater may be used as the heating member in aninsulated conductor heater. The heating member of the insulatedconductor heater may be located inside a sheath with an insulation layerbetween the sheath and the heating member.

FIG. 217 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of an insitu heat treatment system positioned in formation 492 with u-shapedwellbores 924 using self-regulating nuclear reactors 910.Self-regulating nuclear reactors 910, depicted in FIG. 217, may produceabout 70 MWthermal. In some embodiments, spacing between wellbores 924is determined based on the decay rate of the energy output ofself-regulating nuclear reactors 910.

U-shaped wellbores may run down through overburden 400 and intohydrocarbon containing layer 388. The piping in wellbores 924 adjacentto overburden 400 may include insulated portion 926. Insulated storagetanks 928 may receive molten salt from the formation 492 through piping930. Piping 930 may transport molten salts with temperatures rangingfrom about 350° C. to about 500° C. Temperatures in the storage tanksmay be dependent on the type of molten salt used. Temperatures in thestorage tanks may be in the vicinity of about 350° C. Pumps may move themolten salt to self-regulating nuclear reactors 910 through piping 932.Each of the pumps may need to move, for example, 6 kg/sec to 12 kg/secof the molten salt. Each self-regulating nuclear reactor 910 may provideheat to the molten salt. The molten salt may pass from piping 934 towellbores 924. The heated portion of wellbore 924 that passes throughlayer 388 may extend, in some embodiments, from about 8,000 feet (about2400 m) to about 10,000 feet (about 3000 m). Exit temperatures of themolten salt from self-regulating nuclear reactors 910 may be about 550°C. Each self-regulating nuclear reactor 910 may supply molten salt toabout 20 or more wellbores 924 that enter into the formation. The moltensalt flows through the formation and back to storage tanks 928 throughpiping 930.

In some embodiments, nuclear energy is used in a cogeneration process.In an embodiment for producing hydrocarbons from a hydrocarboncontaining formation (for example, a tar sands formation), producedhydrocarbons may include one or more portions with heavy hydrocarbons.Hydrocarbons may be produced from the formation using more than oneprocess. In certain embodiments, nuclear energy is used to assist inproducing at least some of the hydrocarbons. At least some of theproduced heavy hydrocarbons may be subjected to pyrolysis temperatures.Pyrolysis of the heavy hydrocarbons may be used to produce steam. Steammay be used for a number of purposes including, but not limited to,producing electricity, converting hydrocarbons, and/or upgradinghydrocarbons.

In some embodiments, a heat transfer fluid is heated using aself-regulating nuclear reactor. The heat transfer fluid may be heatedto temperatures that allow for steam production (for example, from about550° C. to about 600° C.). In some embodiments, in situ heat treatmentprocess gas and/or fuel passes to a reformation unit. In someembodiments, in situ heat treatment process gas is mixed with fuel andthen passed to the reformation unit. A portion of in situ heat treatmentprocess gas may enter a gas separation unit. The gas separation unit mayremove one or more components from the in situ heat treatment processgas to produce the fuel and one or more other streams (for example,carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide). The fuel may include, but not belimited to, hydrogen, hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at most 5,or mixtures thereof.

The reformer unit may be a steam reformer. The reformer unit may combinesteam with a fuel (for example, methane) to produce hydrogen. Forexample, the reformation unit may include water gas shift catalysts. Thereformation unit may include one or more separation systems (forexample, membranes and/or a pressure swing adsorption system) capable ofseparating hydrogen from other components. Reformation of the fueland/or the in situ heat treatment process gas may produce a hydrogenstream and a carbon oxide stream. Reformation of the fuel and/or the insitu heat treatment process gas may be performed using techniques knownin the art for catalytic and/or thermal reformation of hydrocarbons toproduce hydrogen. In some embodiments, electrolysis is used to producehydrogen from the steam. A portion or all of the hydrogen stream may beused for other purposes such as, but not limited to, an energy sourceand/or a hydrogen source for in situ or ex situ hydrogenation ofhydrocarbons.

Self-regulating nuclear reactors may be used to produce hydrogen atfacilities located adjacent to hydrocarbon containing formations. Theability to produce hydrogen on site at hydrocarbon containing formationsis highly advantageous due to the plurality of ways in which hydrogen isused for converting and upgrading hydrocarbons on site at hydrocarboncontaining formations.

In some embodiments, the first heat transfer fluid is heated usingthermal energy stored in the formation. Thermal energy may result in theformation following a number of different heat treatment methods.

Self-regulating nuclear reactors have several advantages over manycurrent constant output nuclear reactors. However, there are several newnuclear reactors whose designs have received regulatory approval forconstruction. Nuclear energy may be provided by a number of differenttypes of available nuclear reactors and nuclear reactors currently underdevelopment (for example, generation IV reactors).

In some embodiments, nuclear reactors include very high temperaturereactors (VHTR). VHTRs may use, for example, helium as a coolant todrive a gas turbine for treating hydrocarbon fluids in situ, powering anelectrolysis unit, and/or for other purposes. VHTRs may produce heat upto about 950° C. or more. In some embodiments, nuclear reactors includea sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR). SFRs may be designed on a smallerscale (for example, 50 MWe) and therefore may be more cost effective tomanufacture on site for treating hydrocarbon fluids in situ, poweringelectrolysis units, and/or for other purposes. SFRs may be of a modulardesign and potentially portable. SFRs may produce temperatures rangingbetween about 500° C. and about 600° C., between about 525° C. and about575° C., or between 540° C. and about 560° C.

In some embodiments, pebble bed reactors are employed to provide thermalenergy. Pebble bed reactors may produce up to 165 MWe. Pebble bedreactors may produce temperatures ranging between about 500° C. andabout 1100° C., between about 800° C. and about 1000° C., or betweenabout 900° C. and about 950° C. In some embodiments, nuclear reactorsinclude supercritical-water-cooled reactors (SCWR) based at least inpart on previous light water reactors (LWR) and supercriticalfossil-fired boilers. SCWRs may produce temperatures ranging betweenabout 400° C. and about 650° C., between about 450° C. and about 550°C., or between about 500° C. and about 550° C.

In some embodiments, nuclear reactors include lead-cooled fast reactors(LFR). LFRs may be manufactured in a range of sizes, from modularsystems to several hundred megawatt or more. LFRs may producetemperatures ranging between about 400° C. and about 900° C., betweenabout 500° C. and about 850° C., or between about 550° C. and about 800°C.

In some embodiments, nuclear reactors include molten salt reactors(MSR). MSRs may include fissile, fertile, and fission isotopes dissolvedin a molten fluoride salt with a boiling point of about 1,400° C. Themolten fluoride salt may function as both the reactor fuel and thecoolant. MSRs may produce temperatures ranging between about 400° C. andabout 900° C., between about 500° C. and about 850° C., or between about600° C. and about 800° C.

In some in situ heat treatment embodiments, compressors providecompressed gases to the treatment area. For example, compressors may beused to provide oxidizing fluid 678 and/or fuel 936 to a plurality ofoxidizer assemblies. Oxidizers may burn a mixture of oxidizing fluid 678and fuel 936 to produce heat that heats the treatment area in theformation. Also, compressors 714 may be used to supply gas phase heattransfer fluid to the formation as depicted in FIG. 165. In someembodiments, pumps provide liquid phase heat transfer fluid to thetreatment area.

A significant cost of the in situ heat treatment process may beoperating the compressors and/or pumps over the life of the in situ heattreatment process if conventional electrical energy sources are used topower the compressors and/or pumps of the in situ heat treatmentprocess. In some embodiments, nuclear power may be used to generateelectricity that operates the compressors and/or pumps needed for the insitu heat treatment process. The nuclear power may be supplied by one ormore nuclear reactors. The nuclear reactors may be light water reactors,pebble bed reactors, and/or other types of nuclear reactors. The nuclearreactors may be located at or near to the in situ heat treatment processsite. Locating the nuclear reactors at or near to the in situ heattreatment process site may reduce equipment costs and electricaltransmission losses over long distances. The use of nuclear power mayreduce or eliminate the amount of carbon dioxide generation associatedwith operating the compressors and/or pumps over the life of the in situheat treatment process.

Excess electricity generated by the nuclear reactors may be used forother in situ heat treatment process needs. For example, excesselectricity may be used to cool fluid for forming a low temperaturebarrier (frozen barrier) around treatment areas, and/or for providingelectricity to treatment facilities located at or near the in situ heattreatment process site. In some embodiments, the electricity or excesselectricity produced by the nuclear reactors may be used to resistivelyheat the conduits used to circulate heat transfer fluid through thetreatment area.

In some embodiments, excess heat available from the nuclear reactors maybe used for other in situ processes. For example, excess heat may beused to heat water or make steam that is used in solution miningprocesses. In some embodiments, excess heat from the nuclear reactorsmay be used to heat fluids used in the treatment facilities located nearor at the in situ heat treatment site.

In some embodiments, the molten salt includes a carbonate salt or amixture of carbonate salts. Examples of different carbonate salts mayinclude lithium, sodium, and/or potassium carbonate salts. The moltensalt may include about 40% to about 60% by weight lithium carbonate,from about 20% to about 40% by weight sodium carbonate salt and about20% to about 30% by weight potassium carbonate. In some embodiments, themolten salt is a eutectic mixture of carbonate salts. The eutecticcarbonate salt mixture may be a mixture of carbonate salts having amelting point above 390° C., or from about 390° C. to about 700° C., orabout 600° C. The composition of the carbonate molten salt may be variedto produce a carbonate molten salt having a desired melting point usingfor example, known phase diagrams for eutectic carbonate salts. Forexample, a carbonate molten salt containing 44% by weight lithiumcarbonate, 31% by weight sodium carbonate, and 25% by weight potassiumcarbonate has a melting point of about 395° C. Due to higher meltingpoints, heat transfer from hot carbonate molten salts to the formationmay be enhanced. Higher temperature may reduce the time necessary toheat the formation to a desired temperature.

In some in situ heat treatment process embodiments, a circulation systemcontaining carbonate molten salts is used to heat the formation. Usingthe carbonate molten salt circulation system for in situ heat treatmentof a hydrocarbon containing formation may reduce energy costs fortreating the formation, reduce the need for leakage surveillance, and/orfacilitate heating system installation.

In some embodiments, a carbonate molten salt is used to heat theformation. In some embodiments, a carbonate molten salt is provided topiping in a formation after the formation has been heated using a heattransfer fluid described herein. The use of a carbonate molten salt mayallow the formation to be heated if piping in the formation developsleakage. In some embodiments, disposable piping may be used in theformation. In some embodiments, carbonate molten salts are used incirculation systems that have been abandoned. For example, a carbonatemolten salt may be circulated in piping in a formation that hasdeveloped leaks.

FIG. 218, depicts a schematic representation of a system for heating aformation using carbonate molten salt. FIG. 219 depicts a schematicrepresentation of an embodiment of a section of the formation afterheating the formation with a carbonate molten salt over a period oftime. FIG. 220 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodimentof a section of the formation after heating the formation with acarbonate molten salt. Piping may be positioned in the u-shaped wellboreto form u-shaped heater 412. Heater 412 is positioned in wellbores 490and connected to heat transfer fluid circulation system 706 by piping.Wellbore 490 may be an open wellbore. In some embodiments, the verticalor overburden portions 1466 of wellbore 490 are cemented withnon-conductive cement or foam cement. Portions 1468 of heater 412 in theoverburden may be made of material chemically resistant to hot carbonatesalts (for example, stainless steel tubing). Portion 1472 of heater 412may be manufactured from materials that degrade over time. For example,carbon steel, or alloys having a low chromium content. Carbonate moltensalt 1470 may enter one end of heater 412 and exit another end of theheater. Flow of hot carbonate molten salt 1470 provides heat to at leasta portion of hydrocarbon layer 388.

Over time contact of carbonate molten salt 1470 may degrade or decomposeparts of portion 1472 of heater 412 to form openings in the portion (asshown in FIG. 219). In some embodiments, portion 1472 may includeperforations that may be opened or have coverings made of material thatdegrades over time that allows carbonate molten salt 1470 to flow intohydrocarbon layer 388. As hot carbonate molten salt contacts coolerportions of hydrocarbon layer 388, the hot carbonate molten salt maycool and solidify. Formation of openings in portion 1472 may allowcarbonate molten salt 1470 to flow into a second portion of hydrocarbonlayer 388. As carbonate molten salt 1470 enters a cooler section of theformation, the carbonate molten salt may become solid or partiallysolidify. The solidified carbonate molten salt may liquefy or melt whencontacted with new hot molten carbonate salt flowing through heater 412.Melting of the solid molten carbonate salt may move more carbonatemolten salt into hydrocarbon layer 388. The cycle of solidification andmelting of the carbonate molten salt may create permeable heater 1476that surrounds portion 1472 of heater 412, (as shown in FIG. 220).Permeable heater 1476 may have a diameter at least about 1 diameter orabout 2 diameters greater than portion 1472 of heater 412. Formation ofpermeable heater 1476 in situ may allow the carbonate molten salt flowthrough the permeable heater and heat additional portions of hydrocarbonlayer 388. The ability to heat additional portion of hydrocarbon layer388 with a permeable heater may reduce the amount of heaters requiredand/or time necessary to heat the formation.

In some embodiments, permeability or injectivity in a hydrocarboncontaining formation is created by selectively fracturing portions ofthe formation. A solid salt composition may be injected into a sectionof the formation (for example, a lithium/sodium/potassium nitrate saltsand/or lithium/sodium/potassium carbonate salts). In some embodiments,the solid salt composition is moved through the formation using a gas,for example, carbon dioxide, or hydrocarbon gas. In some embodiments,the solid salt composition may be provided to the formation as anaqueous slurry. Heat may be provided from one or more heaters to heatthe portion to about a melting point of the salt. The heaters may betemperature limited heaters. As the solid salt composition becomesmolten or liquid, the pressure in the formation may increase fromexpansion of the melting solid salt composition. The expansion pressuremay be at a pressure effective to fracture the formation, but below thefracture pressure of the overburden. Fracturing of the section mayincrease permeability of the formation. In some embodiments, at least aportion of the heated solid salt compositions contacts at least somehydrocarbons causes an increase in pressure in the section and createfractures in the formation.

The molten salt may move through the formation towards cooler portionsof the formation and solidify. In some embodiments, heaters may bepositioned in some of the fractures in the section and heat is providedto a second section of the formation. In some embodiments, heat from theheaters in the fractures may melt or liquefy the solid salt compositionand more fractures may be formed in the formation. In some embodiments,the heaters melt the molten salt and heat from the molten salt istransferred to the formation. In some embodiments, fluid is injectedinto at least some of fractures formed in the section. Use of moltensalts to increase permeability in formations may allow heating ofrelatively shallow formations with low overburden fracture pressures.

Fractures may be created by expansion of the heated portion of theformation matrix. Heating in shallow portions of a formation (forexample, at a depth ranging from 150 m to 400 m) may cause expansion ofthe formation and create fractures in the overburden. Expansion in aformation may occur rapidly when the formation is heated at temperaturesbelow pyrolysis temperatures. For example, the formation may be heatedto an average temperature of up to about 200° C. Expansion in theformation is generally much slower when the formation is heated ataverage temperatures ranging from about 200° C. to about 350° C. Attemperatures above pyrolysis temperatures (for example, temperaturesranging from 230° C. to 900° C., from 240° C. to 400° C. or from 250° C.to 350° C.), there may be little or no expansion in the formation. Insome formations, there may be compaction of the formation abovepyrolysis temperatures.

In some embodiments, a formation includes an upper layer and lower layerwith similar formation matrixes that have different initial porosities.For example, the lower layer may have sufficient initial porosity suchthat the thermal expansion of the upper layer is minimal orsubstantially none whereas the upper layer may not have sufficientinitial porosity so the upper layer expands when heated.

In some embodiments, a hydrocarbon formation is heated in stages usingan in situ heat treatment process to allow production of formationfluids from a shallow portion of the formation. Heating layers of ahydrocarbon formation in stages may control thermal expansion of theformation and inhibit overburden fracturing. Heating an upper layer ofthe formation after significant pyrolysis of a lower layer of theformation occurs may reduce, inhibit, and/or accommodate the effects ofpressure in the formation, thus inhibiting fracturing of the overburden.Staged heating of layers of a hydrocarbon formation may allow productionof hydrocarbons from shallow portions of the formation that otherwisecould not be produced due to fracturing of the overburden.

FIGS. 221A and 221B depict representations of an embodiment of heating ahydrocarbon containing formation in stages. Heating lower layer 388Aprior to heating upper layer 388B may reduce and/or control the effectsof thermal expansion in the formation during a selected period of time.FIG. 221A depicts hydrocarbon layer having lower layer 388A and upperlayer 388B. Lower layer 388A may be heated a selected period of time tocreate permeability and/or porosity in the lower layer to allow thermalexpansion of upper layer 388B into lower layer 388A. In someembodiments, a lower layer of the formation is heated above apyrolyzation temperature. In some embodiments, a lower layer of theformation is heated an average temperature during in situ heat treatmentof the formation ranging from at least 230° C. or from about 230° C. toabout 370° C. During the selected period of time, some (and some casessignificant amount of) thermal expansion may take place in lower layer388A.

Heating of lower layer 388A prior to heating upper layer 388B maycontrol expansion of the upper layer and inhibit fracturing ofoverburden 400. Heating of the lower layer 388A at temperatures greaterthan pyrolyzation temperatures may create sufficient permeability and/orporosity in lower layer 388A that upon heating upper layer 388B fluidsand/or materials in the upper layer may thermally expand and flow intothe lower layer. Sufficient permeability and/or porosity in lower layer388A may be created to allow pressure generated during heating of upperlayer 388B to be released into the lower layer and not the overburden,and thus, fracturing of the overburden may be prevented/inhibited.

The depth of lower layer 388A and upper layer 388B in the formation maybe selected to maximize expansion of the upper layer into the lowerlayer. For example, a depth of lower layer 388A may be at least fromabout 400 m to about 750 m from the surface of the formation. A depth ofupper layer 388B may be 150 m to about 400 m from the surface of theformation. In some embodiments, lower layer 388A of the formation mayhave different thermal conductivities and/or different thermal expansioncoefficients than layer 388B. Fluid from lower layer 388A may beproduced from the lower layer using production wells 206. Hydrocarbonsproduced from lower layer 388A prior to heating upper layer 388B mayinclude mobilized and/or pyrolyzed hydrocarbons.

The depth of layers in the formation may be determined by simulation,calculation, or any suitable method for estimating the extent ofexpansion that will occur in a layer when the layer is heated to aselected average temperature. The amount of expansion caused by heatingof the formation may be estimated based on factors such as, but notlimited to, measured or estimated richness of layers in the formation,thermal conductivity of layers in the formation, thermal expansioncoefficients (for example, a linear thermal expansion coefficient) oflayers in the formation, formation stresses, and expected temperature oflayers in the formation. Simulations may also take into effect strengthcharacteristics of a rock matrix.

In certain embodiments, heaters 412 in lower layer 388A may be turned onfor a selected period of time. Heaters 412 in lower layer 388A and upperlayer 388B may be vertical or horizontal heaters. After heating lowerlayer 388A for a period of time, heaters 412 in upper layer 388B may beturned on. In some embodiments, heaters 412 in lower layer 388A arevertical heaters that are raised to upper layer 388B after the lowerlayer is heated for a selected period of time. Any pattern or number ofheaters may be used to heat the layers.

Heaters 412 in upper layer 388B may be turned on at, or near, thecompletion of heating of lower layer 388A. For example, heaters 412 inupper layer 388B may be turned on, or begin heating, within about 9months, about 24 months, or about 36 months from the time heaters 412 inlower layer 388A begin heating. Heaters 412 in upper layer 388B may beturned on after a selected amount of pyrolyzation, and/or hydrocarbonproduction has occurred in lower layer 388A. In one embodiment, heaters412 in upper layer 388B are turned on after sufficient permeability inlower layer 388A is created and/or pyrolyzation of lower layer 388A hasbeen completed. Treatment of lower layer 388A may sufficient when thelayer lower layer is sufficiently compacted as determined using opticfiber techniques (for example, real-time compaction imaging) orradioactive bullets, when average temperature of the formation is atleast 230° C., or greater than 260° C., and/or when production of atleast 10%, at least 20%, or at least 30% of the expected volume ofhydrocarbons has occurred.

Upper layer 388B may be heated by heaters 412 at a rate sufficient toallow expansion of the upper layer into lower layer 388A and thusinhibit fracturing of the overburden. Portion 1418 of upper layer 388Bmay sag into lower layer 388A as shown in 221B. Upon heating, saggedportion 1418 of upper layer 388B may expand back to the surface (forexample, return to the flat shape depicted in FIG. 221A). Allowing theupper layer to sag into the lower layer and expand back to the surfacemay inhibit or lower tensile stress in the overburden that may result insurface fissures. Heaters 412 may heat upper layer 388B to an averagetemperature from about 200° C. to about 370° C. for a selected amount oftime.

After and/or during of treatment of upper layer 388B, fluids from theupper and lower layer may be produced from the lower layer usingproduction well 206. Hydrocarbons produced from production well 206 mayinclude pyrolyzed hydrocarbons from the upper layer. In someembodiments, fluids are produced from upper layer 388B.

In some embodiments, a hydrocarbon containing formation is treated usingan in situ heat treatment process to remove methane from the formation.The hydrocarbon containing formation may be an oil shale formationand/or contain coal. In some embodiments, a barrier is formed around theportion to be heated. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon containingformation includes a coal containing layer (a deep coal seam) underneatha layer of oil shale. The coal containing layer may containsignificantly more methane than the oil shale layer. For example, thecoal containing layer may have a volume of methane that is five timesgreater than a volume of methane in the oil shale layer. Wellbores maybe formed that extend through the oil shale layer into the coalcontaining layer.

Heat may be provided to the hydrocarbon containing formation from aplurality of heaters located in the formation. One or more of theheaters may be temperature limited heaters and or one or more insulatedconductors (for example, a mineral insulated conductor). The heating maybe controlled to allow treatment of the oil shale layer whilemaintaining a temperature of the coal containing layer below a pyrolysistemperature.

After treatment of the oil shale layer, heaters may be extended into thecoal containing layer. The temperature in the coal containing layer maybe maintained below a pyrolysis temperature of hydrocarbons in theformation. In some embodiments, the coal containing layer is maintainedat a temperature from about 30° C. to 40° C. As the temperature of thecoal containing layer increases, methane may be released from theformation. The methane may be produced from the coal containing layer.In some embodiments, hydrocarbons having a carbon number between 1 and 5are released from the coal continuing layer of the formation andproduced from the formation.

In some embodiments, amounts of ammonia and/or hydrogen sulfide producedfrom a hydrocarbon containing formation hydrogen may vary depending onthe geology of the hydrocarbon containing formation. During an in situheat treatment process, hydrocarbon containing formation that have ahigh content of sulfur and/or nitrogen may produce a significant amountof ammonia and/or hydrogen sulfide and/or formation fluids that includea significant amount of ammonia and/or hydrogen sulfide. During heating,at least a portion of the ammonia may be oxidized to NOx compounds. Theformation fluid may have to be treated to remove the ammonia, NOx and/orhydrogen sulfide prior to processing in a surface facility and/ortransporting the formation fluid. Treatment of the formation fluid mayinclude, but is not limited to, gas separation methods, adsorptionmethods or any known method to remove hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and/orNOx from the formation fluid. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbonformation includes a significant amount of compounds that off-gasammonia and/or hydrogen sulfide that the formation is deemedunacceptable for treatment.

The nitrogen content in the hydrocarbon containing formation may comefrom hydrocarbon compounds that contain nitrogen, inorganic compoundsand/or ammonium feldspars (for example, buddingtonite (NH₄AlSi₃O₈)).

The sulfur content in the hydrocarbon containing formation may come fromorganic sulfur and/or inorganic compounds. Inorganic compounds include,but are not limited to, sulfates, pyrites, metal sulfides, and mixturesthereof. Treatment of formations containing significant amounts of totalsulfur may result in release of unpredictable amounts of hydrogensulfide. As shown in TABLE 9, formations having different amounts oftotal sulfur produce varying amounts of hydrogen sulfide, especiallywhen the formations contain a significant amount of organosulfurcompounds and/or sulfate compounds. For example comparing same 3 withsample 4 TABLE 9, the different amounts of hydrogen sulfide produceddoes not directly correlate to the total sulfur present in the sulfur.

TABLE 9 Sample No. Total Sulfur, % wt. H2S yield, % wt 1 0.68 0.08 20.93 0.17 3 0.99 0.32 4 1.09 0.06 5 1.11 0.19 6 1.11 0.17 7 1.16 0.15 81.24 0.17 9 1.35 0.34 10 1.37 0.31 11 1.45 0.63 12 1.53 0.54 13 1.550.27 14 2.61 0.39

Treatment to remove unwanted gases produced during production ofhydrocarbons from a formation may be expensive and/or inefficient. Manymethods have been developed to reduce the amount of ammonia and/orhydrogen sulfide by adding solutions to hydrocarbon containingformations that neutralize or complex the nitrogen and/or sulfur in theformation. Methods to produce formation fluids having reduced amounts ofundesired gases (for example, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and/or NOxcompounds are desired).

It has been found that the amount of hydrogen sulfide produced from ahydrocarbon containing formation correlates with the amount of pyriticsulfur in the formation. TABLE 10 is a tabulation of percent by weightpyritic sulfur in layers of a hydrocarbon containing formation thatinclude pyritic sulfur and the percent by weight hydrogen sulfideproduced from the layer upon heating. As shown in TABLE 10, the amountof hydrogen sulfide produced increases with the amount of pyritic sulfurin the layer.

TABLE 10 Hydrocarbon Layer No. Pyritic Sulfur, % wt H2S % wt 1 0.73 0.322 0.68 0.06 3 1.23 0.54 4 1.01 0.34 5 2.08 0.39 6 0.95 0.63 7 0.66 0.198 0.55 0.15 9 0.50 0.17 10 0.95 0.27 11 0.50 0.17 12 0.92 0.31 13 0.230.08 14 0.54 0.17

In some embodiments, a hydrocarbon formation is assessed using knownmethods (for example, Fischer Assay data and/or 34S isotope data) todetermine the total amount of inorganic sulfur compounds and/or totalamount of inorganic nitrogen compounds in the formation. Based on theassessed amount of ammonia and/or metal sulfide (for example, pyrite) ina portion of the formation, heaters may be positioned in portions of theformation to selectively heat the formation while inhibiting the amountof hydrogen sulfide and/or ammonia produced during treatment. Suchselective heating allows treatment of formations containing significantamounts of ammonia, pyrite and/or metal sulfides for production ofhydrocarbons.

In some embodiments, heat is provided to a first portion of ahydrocarbon containing formation from one or more heaters and/or heatsources. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the heaters in thefirst section are substantially horizontal. Heat from heaters in thefirst section raise a temperature of the first section to above amobilization temperature. During heating, a portion of the hydrocarbonsin the first section may be mobilized. Hydrocarbons may be produced fromthe first section. In some embodiments, hydrocarbons in the firstsection are heated to a pyrolysis temperature and at least a portion ofthe hydrocarbons are pyrolyzed to form hydrocarbon gases.

A second section in the formation may include a significant amount ofinorganic sulfur compounds and/or inorganic nitrogen compounds. In someembodiments, the second section may contain at least 0.1% by weight, atleast 0.5% by weight, or at least 1% by weight pyrite. The secondsection may provide structural strength to the formation. Maintaining asecond section below the pyrolysis and/or mobilization temperature ofhydrocarbons may inhibit production of undesirable gases (for example,hydrogen sulfide and/or ammonia) from the second section. In someembodiments, the formation includes alternating layers of hydrocarbons,inorganic metal sulfides, and ammonia compounds having differentconcentrations. In some in situ conversion embodiments, columns ofuntreated portions of formation may remain in a formation that hasundergone in situ heat treatment process.

A second section of the formation adjacent to the first section mayremain untreated by controlling an average temperature in the secondportion below a pyrolysis and/or a mobilization temperature ofhydrocarbons in the second section. In some embodiments, the averagetemperature of the second section may be less than 230° C. or from about25° C. to 300° C. In some embodiments, the average temperature of thesecond section is below the decomposition of the inorganic sulfurcompounds (for example, pyrite). For example, the temperature in thesecond section may be less than 300° C., less than about 230° C., orfrom about 25° C. to up to the decomposition temperature of theinorganic sulfur compound.

In some embodiments, an average temperature in the second section ismaintained by positioning barrier wells between the first section andthe second section and/or the second section and/or the third section ofthe formation.

In some embodiments, the untreated second section may be between thefirst section and a third section of the formation. Heat may be providedto the third portion of the hydrocarbon containing formation. Heaters inthe first section and third section may be substantially horizontal.Formation fluids may be produced from the third section of theformation. A processed formation may have a pattern with alternatingtreated portions and untreated portions. In some embodiments, theuntreated second portion may be adjacent to the first section of theformation that is subjected to pyrolysis.

In some embodiments, at least a portion of the heaters in the firstsection are substantially vertical and may extend into or through one ormore sections of the formation (for example, through a first verticalsection, a second vertical section and/or a third vertical section). Theaverage temperature in the second section may be controlled byselectively controlling the heat produced from the portion of the heaterin the second section. Heat from the second section of the heater may becontrolled by blocking, turning down, and/or turning off the secondportion of the heater so that a minimal amount of heat or no heat isprovided to the second section.

In some embodiments, formation fluid from the first section may bemobilized through the second section. The formation fluid may includegaseous hydrocarbons and/or mercury. The formation fluid may contactinorganic sulfur compounds (for example, pyrite) in the second section.Contact of the formation fluid with the inorganic sulfur compounds mayremove at least a portion of the mercury from the formation fluid.Contact of the inorganic sulfur compounds may produce one or moremercury sulfides that precipitate from the formation fluid and remain inthe second section.

In some embodiments, one or more portions of formation enriched inpyrite (FeS₂) are heated to a temperature under formation conditionssuch that at least a portion of the pyrite compounds are converted totroilite (FeS) and/or one or more pyrrhotite compounds (FeSx,1.0<x<1.23) and gaseous sulfur. For example, the second section may beheated temperatures ranging from about 250° C. to about 750° C., fromabout 300° C. to about 600° C., or from about 400° C. to about 500° C.Troilite and/or pyrrhotite compounds may react with mercury entrained ingaseous hydrocarbons to form mercury sulfide more rapidly than pyriteunder formation conditions (for example, under a hydrogen atmosphereand/or at a pH of less than 7).

The second section may be sufficient permeability to allow gaseoushydrocarbons to flow through the section. In some embodiments, thesecond section contains less hydrocarbons (hydrocarbon lean) than thefirst section (hydrocarbon rich). After heating the second section for aperiod of time to convert some of the pyrite to pyrrhotite, thehydrocarbon rich first section may be heated using an in situ heattreatment process. In some embodiments, hydrocarbons are mobilized andproduced from the second section. Formation fluid containing mercuryfrom the first section may be mobilized through the second section ofthe formation containing pyrrhotite to a third section.

Contact of the mobilized formation fluid with the pyrrhotite may removesome or all of the mercury from the formation fluid. The contactedformation fluid may be produced from the formation. In some embodiments,the contacted formation fluid is produced from a heated third section ofthe formation. The contacted formation fluid may be substantially freeof mercury or contain a minimal amount of mercury. In some embodiments,the contacted formation fluid has a mercury amount in the contactedformation is less than 10 ppb by weight.

FIGS. 222 through 224 depict representations of embodiments of treatinghydrocarbon formations containing inorganic sulfur and/or inorganicnitrogen compounds. FIG. 222 is a representation of an embodiment oftreating hydrocarbon formations containing sulfur and/or inorganicnitrogen compounds. FIG. 223 depicts a representation of an embodimentof treating hydrocarbon formations containing inorganic compounds usingselected heating. FIG. 224 depicts a representation of an embodiment oftreating hydrocarbon formation using an in situ heat treatment processwith subsurface removal of mercury from formation fluid.

Heat from heaters 412 may heat portions of first section 1420 and/orthird section 1422 of hydrocarbon layer 388. Hydrocarbon layer may bebelow overburden 400. As shown in FIG. 222, heaters in the first sectionand third section may be substantially horizontal. Heaters 412 may go inand out of the page. Untreated second section 1424 is between firstsection 1420 and third section 1422. Although shown in a horizontalconfiguration, it should be understood that second section 1424 may be,in some embodiments, substantially above first section 1420 andsubstantially below third section 1422 in the formation. Untreatedsecond section 1424 may include inorganic sulfur and/or inorganicnitrogen compounds. For example second section 1424 may include pyrite.Heat from heaters 412 may pyrolyze and/or mobilize a portion ofhydrocarbons in first section 1420 and/or third section 1422.Hydrocarbons may be produced through productions wells 206 in firstsection 1420 and/or third section 1422.

As shown in FIG. 223, heater 412 is substantially vertical and extendsthrough sections 1420, 1424. Heat from portions 412A of heater 412 mayprovide heat to first section 1420 of hydrocarbon layer 388. Portion412B of heater 412A may be inhibited from providing heat below amobilization and/or a pyrolyzation temperature to second section 1424.Hydrocarbons may be mobilized in first section 1420 and produced fromthe formation using production well 206.

In some embodiments, hydrocarbons in first section 1420 may includemercury and/or mercury compounds and second section 1424 containstroilite and/or pyrite. Heat from heaters 412 may heat portions of firstsection 1420 and/or third section 1422 (shown in FIG. 222) ofhydrocarbon layer 388.

Hydrocarbons may be pyrolyzed and/or mobilized in first section 1420. Asshown in FIG. 222, hydrocarbons may move from first section 1420 throughuntreated second section 1424 towards third section 1422 as shown byarrows 1426. Pressure in heater wells may be adjusted to push gaseoushydrocarbons into second section 1424. In some embodiments, a drivefluid, for example, carbon dioxide is used to drive the gaseoushydrocarbons towards second section 1424. In certain embodiments,gaseous hydrocarbons are produced from the third section 1422 and liquidhydrocarbons are produced from first section 1420.

As shown in FIG. 224, heat from heaters 412 heats second section 1424 toconvert some of the inorganic sulfur in the second section to a form ofinorganic sulfur reactive to mercury (for example, pyrite is convertedto troilite). After heating second section 1424, heat from heaters 412may heat first section 1420 and heat hydrocarbons to a mobilizationtemperature. Hydrocarbons gases may move from first section 1420 throughheated second section 1424 and be produced from production wells 206 inthe second section as shown by arrows 1426. Pressure in heater wells maybe adjusted to push hydrocarbons into second section 1424. Duringproduction of hydrocarbons from first section 1420, casing vents of theproduction wells 206 of the first section may be closed with productionpumps running so that liquid hydrocarbons are produced through thetubing of the production wells. Thus, preventing any entrainment ofliquid hydrocarbons in second section 1424.

As the hydrocarbons flow through second section 1424, contact ofhydrocarbons with inorganic sulfur (for example, pyrite and/or troilite)in the second section may complex and/or react with mercury and/ormercury compounds. Contact of mercury and/or mercury compounds withpyrite may remove the mercury and/or mercury compounds from thehydrocarbons. In some embodiments, insoluble mercury sulfides are formedthat precipitate from the hydrocarbons. Mercury free hydrocarbons may beproduced through productions wells 206 in second sections 1424 (as shownin FIG. 224 and/or third section 1422 (as shown in FIG. 222)).

In certain embodiments, a solvation fluid and/or pressurizing fluid areused to treat the hydrocarbon formation in addition to the in situ heattreatment process. In some embodiments, a solvation fluid and/orpressurizing fluid is used after the hydrocarbon formation has beentreated using a drive process.

In some embodiments, heaters are used to heat a first section theformation. For example, heaters may be used to heat a first section offormation to pyrolysis temperatures to produce formation fluids. In someembodiments, heaters are used to heat a first section of the formationto temperatures below pyrolysis temperatures to visbreak and/or mobilizefluids in the formation. In other embodiments, a first section of aformation is heated by heaters prior to, during, or after a driveprocess is used to produce formation fluids.

Residual heat from first section may transfer to portions of theformation above, below, and/or adjacent to the first section. Thetransferred residual heat, however, may not be sufficient to mobilizethe fluids in the other portions of the formation towards productionwells so that recovery of the fluids from the colder sections fluids maybe difficult. Addition of a fluid (for example, a solvation fluid and/ora pressurizing fluid) may solubilize and/or drive the hydrocarbons inthe sections of the formation heated by residual heat towards productionwells. Addition of a solvating and/or pressurizing fluid to portions ofthe formation heated by residual heat may facilitate recovery ofhydrocarbons without requiring heaters to heat the additional sections.Addition of the fluid may allow for the recovery of hydrocarbons inpreviously produced sections and/or for the recovery of viscoushydrocarbons in colder sections of the formation.

In some embodiments, the formation is treated using the in situ heattreatment process for a significant time after the formation has beentreated with a drive process. For example, the in situ heat treatmentprocess is used 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, or longer after a formationhas been treated using drive processes. After heating the formation fora significant amount of time using heaters and/or injected fluid (forexample, steam), a solvation fluid may be added to the heated sectionand/or portions above and/or below the heated section. The in situ heattreatment process followed by addition of a solvation fluid and/or apressurizing fluid may be used on formations that have been left dormantafter the drive process treatment because further hydrocarbon productionusing the drive process is not possible and/or not economicallyfeasible. In some embodiments, the solvation fluid and/or thepressurizing fluid is used to increase the amount of heat provided tothe formation. In some embodiments, an in situ heat treatment processmay be used following addition of the solvation fluid and/orpressurizing fluid to increase the recovery of hydrocarbons from theformation.

In some embodiments, the solvation fluid forms an in situ solvationfluid mixture. Using the in situ solvation fluid may upgrade thehydrocarbons in the formation. The in situ solvation fluid may enhancesolubilization of hydrocarbons and/or and facilitate moving thehydrocarbons from one portion of the formation to another portion of theformation.

FIGS. 225 and 226 depict side view representations of embodiments forproducing a fluid mixture from the hydrocarbon containing formation. InFIGS. 225 and 226, heaters 412 have substantially horizontal heatingsections below overburden 400 in hydrocarbon layer 388 (as shown, theheaters have heating sections that go into and out of the page). Heaters412 provide heat to first section 938 of hydrocarbon layer 388. Patternsof heaters, such as triangles, squares, rectangles, hexagons, and/oroctagons may be used within first section 938. First section 938 may beheated at least to temperatures sufficient to mobilize some hydrocarbonswithin the first section. A temperature of the heated first section 938may range from about 200° C. to about 240° C. In some embodiments,temperature within first section 938 may be increased to a pyrolyzationtemperature (for example between 250° C. and 400° C.).

In certain embodiments, the bottommost heaters are located between about2 m and about 10 m from the bottom of hydrocarbon layer 388, betweenabout 4 m and about 8 m from the bottom of the hydrocarbon layer, orbetween about 5 m and about 7 m from the bottom of the hydrocarbonlayer. In certain embodiments, production wells 206A are located at adistance from the bottommost heaters 412 that allows heat from theheaters to superimpose over the production wells, but at a distance fromthe heaters that inhibits coking at the production wells. Productionwells 206A may be located a distance from the nearest heater (forexample, the bottommost heater) of at most ¾ of the spacing betweenheaters in the pattern of heaters (for example, the triangular patternof heaters depicted in FIGS. 225 and 226). In some embodiments,production wells 206A are located a distance from the nearest heater ofat most ⅔, at most ½, or at most ⅓ of the spacing between heaters in thepattern of heaters. In certain embodiments, production wells 206A arelocated between about 2 m and about 10 m from the bottommost heaters,between about 4 m and about 8 m from the bottommost heaters, or betweenabout 5 m and about 7 m from the bottommost heaters. Production wells206A may be located between about 0.5 m and about 8 m from the bottom ofhydrocarbon layer 388, between about 1 m and about 5 m from the bottomof the hydrocarbon layer, or between about 2 m and about 4 m from thebottom of the hydrocarbon layer.

In some embodiments, formation fluid is produced from first section 938.The formation fluid may be produced through production wells 206A. Insome embodiments, the formation fluids drain by gravity to a bottomportion of the layer. The drained fluids may be produced from productionwells 206A positioned at the bottom portion of the layer. Production ofthe formation fluids may continue until a majority of condensablehydrocarbons in the formation fluid are produced. After the majority ofthe condensable hydrocarbons have been produced, first section 938 heatfrom heaters 412 may be reduced and/or discontinued to allow a reductionin temperature in the first section. In some embodiments, after themajority of the condensable hydrocarbons have been produced, a pressureof first section 938 may be reduced to a selected pressure after thefirst section reaches the selected temperature. Selected pressures mayrange between about 100 kPa and about 1000 kPa, between 200 kPa and 800kPa, or below a fracture pressure of the formation.

In some embodiments, the formation fluid produced from production wells206 includes at least some pyrolyzed hydrocarbons. Some hydrocarbons maybe pyrolyzed in portions of first section 938 that are at highertemperatures than a remainder of the first section. For example,portions of formation adjacent to heaters 412 may be at somewhat highertemperatures than the remainder of first section 938. The highertemperature of the formation adjacent to heaters 412 may be sufficientto cause pyrolysis of hydrocarbons. Some of the pyrolysis product may beproduced through production wells 206.

One or more sections may be above and/or below first section 938 (forexample, second section 940 and/or third section 942 depicted in FIG.225). FIG. 226 depicts second section 940 and/or third section 942adjacent to first section 938. In some embodiments, second section 940and third section 942 are outside a perimeter defined by the outermostheaters. Some residual heat from first section 938 may transfer tosecond section 940 and third section 942. In some embodiments,sufficient residual heat is transferred to heat formation fluids to atemperature that allows the fluids to move in second section 940 and/orthird section 942 towards productions wells 206. Utilization of residualheat from first section 938 to heat hydrocarbons in second section 940and/or third section 942 may allow hydrocarbons to be produced from thesecond section and/or third section without direct heating of thesesections. A minimal amount of residual heat to second section 940 and/orthird section 942 may be superposition heat from heaters 412. Areas ofsecond section 940 and/or third section 942 that are at a distancegreater than the spacing between heaters 412 may be heated by residualheat from first section 938. Second section 940 and/or third section 942may be heated by conductive and/or convective heat from first section938. A temperature of the sections heated by residual heat may rangefrom 100° C. to 250° C., from 150° C. to 225° C., or from 175° C. to200° C. depending on the proximity of heaters 412 to second section 940and/or third section 942.

In some embodiments, a solvation fluid is provided to first section 938through injection wells 602A to solvate hydrocarbons within the firstsection. In some embodiments, solvation fluid is added to first section938 after a majority of the condensable hydrocarbons have been producedand the first section has cooled. The solvation fluid may solvate and/ordilute the hydrocarbons in first section 938 to form a mixture ofcondensable hydrocarbons and solvation fluids. Formation of the mixturemay allow for production of hydrocarbons remaining in the first section.Solubilization of hydrocarbons in first section 938 may allow thehydrocarbons to be produced from the first section after heat has beenremoved from the section. The mixture may be produced through productionwells 206A.

In some embodiments, a solvation fluid is provided to second section 940and/or third section 942 through injection wells 602B and/or 602C toincrease mobilization of hydrocarbons within the second section and/orthe third section. The solvation fluid may increase a flow of mobilizedhydrocarbons into first section 938. For example, a pressure gradientmay be produced between second section 940 and/or third section 942 andfirst section 938 such that the flow of fluids from the second sectionand/or the third section to the first section is increased. Thesolvation fluid may solubilize a portion of the hydrocarbons in secondsection 940 and/or third section 942 to form a mixture. Solubilizationof hydrocarbons in second section 940 and/or third section 942 may allowthe hydrocarbons to be produced from the second section and/or thirdsection without direct heating of the sections. In some embodiments,second section 940 and/or third section 942 have been heated fromresidual heat transferred from first section 938 prior to addition ofthe solvation fluid. In some embodiments, the solvation fluid is addedafter second section 940 and/or third section 942 have been heated to adesired temperature by heat from first section 938. In some embodiments,heat from first section 938 and/or heat from the solvation fluid heatssection 940 and/or third section 942 to temperatures sufficient tomobilize heavy hydrocarbons in the sections. In some embodiments,section 940 and/or third section 942 are heated to temperatures rangingfrom 50° C. to 250° C. In some embodiments, temperatures in section 940and/or third section 942 are sufficient to mobilize heavy hydrocarbons,thus the solvation fluid may mobilize the heavy hydrocarbons bydisplacing the heavy hydrocarbons with minimal mixing.

In some embodiments, water and/or emulsified water may be used as asolvation fluid. Water may be injected into a portion of first section938, second section 940 and/or third section 942 through injection wells602. Addition of water to at least a selected section of first section938, second section 940 and/or third section 942 may water saturate aportion of the sections. The water saturated portions of the selectedsection may be pressurized by known methods and a water/hydrocarbonmixture may be collected using one or more production wells 206.

In some embodiments, a hydrocarbon formation and/or sections of ahydrocarbon formation may be heated to a selected temperature using aplurality of heaters. Heat from the heaters may transfer from theheaters so that a section of the formation reaches a selectedtemperature. Treating the hydrocarbon formation with hot water or “nearcritical” water may extract and/or solvate hydrocarbons from theformation that have been difficult to produce using other solventprocesses and/or heat treatment processes. Not to be bound by theory,near critical water may solubilize organic material (for example,hydrocarbons) normally not soluble in water. The solubilized and/ormobilized hydrocarbons may be produced from the formation. In otherembodiments, the formation is treated with critical or near criticalcarbon dioxide instead of hot water or near critical water.

In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon formation or one or more section ofthe formation may be heated (for example, using heaters) to atemperature ranging from about 100° C. to about 240° C., from about 150°C. to about 230° C., or from about 200° C. to about 220° C. In someembodiments, the hydrocarbon formation is an oil shale formation. Insome embodiments, temperature within the section may be increased to apyrolyzation temperature (for example, between about 250° C. and about400° C.). During heating, hydrocarbons may be transformed into lighterhydrocarbons, water, and gas. The hydrocarbons may include bitumen. Insome embodiments, kerogen in an oil formation may be transformed intohydrocarbons, water, and gas. During the transformation at least somethe kerogen may be transformed into bitumen. In some embodiments,bitumen may flow into heater and/or production wells and solidify.Solidification of the bitumen may decrease connectivity in the heaterand/or decrease production of hydrocarbons. In some embodiments,production of the bitumen is difficult due to the flow properties ofbitumen.

In some embodiments, after heating the section to the desiredtemperature, the bitumen may be treated with hot water and/or a hotsolution of water and solvent (for example, a solution of water andaromatics such as phenol and cresol). Hot water (for example, water attemperatures above 275° C., above 300° C. or above 350° C.) and/or a hotsolution (for example, a hot solution of water and one or more aromaticcompounds such as phenol and/or cresol compounds) may be injected in theformation (for example, an oil shale formation) or sections of theformation through heater, production, and/or injection wells. Pressureand temperature in the formation and/or the wells may be controlled tomaintain the most of the water in a liquid phase. For example, the watertemperature may range from about 250° C. to about 300° C. at pressuresranging from 5,000 kPa to 15,000 kPa or from 6,000 kPa to 10,000 kPa.Water at these temperatures at pressure may have a dielectric constantof about 20 and a density of about 0.7 grams per cubic centimeter.

In some embodiments, keeping most of the hot water in a liquid phase mayallow the water to enter rock matrix of the formation and mobilize thebitumen and/or extract hydrocarbon fluid from the bitumen. In someembodiments, the hydrocarbon fluid and/or hydrocarbons in thehydrocarbon fluid have a viscosity less than the viscosity of thebitumen. The extracted hydrocarbons and/or mobilized bitumen may beproduced from the section and/or be moved into other sections withsolvating fluids and/or pressurizing fluids. Extraction of hydrocarbonsfrom the bitumen and/or solvation of the bitumen with hot water and/or ahot solution may enhance hydrocarbon recovery from the formation. Forexample, extraction of bitumen may produce hydrocarbons having an APIgravity of at least 10°, at least 15° or at least 20°. The hydrocarbonsmay have a viscosity of at least 100 centipoise at 15° C. The qualityand/or type of the hydrocarbons produced from less heating incombination with hot water extraction may be improved as compared to thequality of hydrocarbons produced at higher temperatures.

In certain embodiments, first section 938, second section 940 and/orthird section 942 may be treated with hydrocarbons (for example,naphtha, kerosene, diesel, vacuum gas oil, or a mixture thereof). Insome embodiments, the hydrocarbons have an aromatic content of at least1% by weight, at least 5% by weight, at least 10% by weight, at least20% by weight or at least 25% by weight. Hydrocarbons may be injectedinto a portion of first section 938, second section 940 and/or thirdsection 942 through injection wells 602. In some embodiments, thehydrocarbons are produced from first section 938 and/or other portionsof the formation. In certain embodiments, the hydrocarbons are producedfrom the formation, treated to remove heavy fractions of hydrocarbons(for example, asphaltenes, hydrocarbons having a boiling point of atleast 300° C., of at least 400° C., at least 500° C., or at least 600°C.) and the hydrocarbons are re-introduced into the formation. In someembodiments, one section may be treated with hydrocarbons while anothersection is treated with water. In some embodiments, water treatment of asection may be alternated with hydrocarbon treatment of the section. Insome embodiments, a first portion of hydrocarbons having a relativelyhigh boiling range distribution (for example, kerosene and/or diesel)are introduced in one section. A second portion of hydrocarbons having arelatively low boiling range distribution or hydrocarbons of loweconomic value (for example, propane) may be introduced into the sectionafter the first portion of hydrocarbons. The introduction ofhydrocarbons of different boiling range distributions may enhancerecovery of the higher boiling hydrocarbons and more economicallyvaluable hydrocarbons through production wells 206.

In an embodiment, a blend made from hydrocarbon mixtures produced fromfirst section 938 is used as a solvation fluid. The blend may includeabout 20% by weight light hydrocarbons (or blending agent) or greater(for example, about 50% by weight or about 80% by weight lighthydrocarbons) and about 80% by weight heavy hydrocarbons or less (forexample, about 50% by weight or about 20% by weight heavy hydrocarbons).The weight percentage of light hydrocarbons and heavy hydrocarbons mayvary depending on, for example, a weight distribution (or API gravity)of light and heavy hydrocarbons, an aromatic content of thehydrocarbons, a relative stability of the blend, or a desired APIgravity of the blend. For example, the weight percentage of lighthydrocarbons in the blend may at most 50% by weight or at most 20% byweight. In certain embodiments, the weight percentage of lighthydrocarbons may be selected to mix the least amount of lighthydrocarbons with heavy hydrocarbons that produces a blend with adesired density or viscosity.

In some embodiments, polymers and/or monomers may be used as solvationfluids. Polymers and/or monomers may solvate and/or drive hydrocarbonsto allow mobilization of the hydrocarbons towards one or more productionwells. The polymer and/or monomer may reduce the mobility of a waterphase in pores of the hydrocarbon containing formation. The reduction ofwater mobility may allow the hydrocarbons to be more easily mobilizedthrough the hydrocarbon containing formation. Polymers that may be usedinclude, but are not limited to, polyacrylamides, partially hydrolyzedpolyacrylamide, polyacrylates, ethylenic copolymers, biopolymers,carboxymethylcellulose, polyvinyl alcohol, polystyrene sulfonates,polyvinylpyrrolidone, AMPS (2-acrylamide-2-methyl propane sulfonate), orcombinations thereof. Examples of ethylenic copolymers includecopolymers of acrylic acid and acrylamide, acrylic acid and laurylacrylate, lauryl acrylate and acrylamide. Examples of biopolymersinclude xanthan gum and guar gum. In some embodiments, polymers may becrosslinked in situ in the hydrocarbon containing formation. In otherembodiments, polymers may be generated in situ in the hydrocarboncontaining formation. Polymers and polymer preparations for use in oilrecovery are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,439,308 to Wang; 6,417,268 toZhang et al.; 5,654,261 to Smith; 5,284,206 to Surles et al.; 5,199,490to Surles et al.; and 5,103,909 to Morgenthaler et al., each of which isincorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.

In some embodiments, the solvation fluid includes one or more nonionicadditives (for example, alcohols, ethoxylated alcohols, nonionicsurfactants and/or sugar based esters). In some embodiments, thesolvation fluid includes one or more anionic surfactants (for example,sulfates, sulfonates, ethoxylated sulfates, and/or phosphates).

In some embodiments, the solvation fluid includes carbon disulfide.Hydrogen sulfide, in addition to other sulfur compounds produced fromthe formation, may be converted to carbon disulfide using known methods.Suitable methods may include oxidizing sulfur compounds to sulfur and/orsulfur dioxide, and reacting sulfur and/or sulfur dioxide with carbonand/or a carbon containing compound to form carbon disulfide. Theconversion of the sulfur compounds to carbon disulfide and the use ofthe carbon disulfide for oil recovery are described in U.S. Pat. No.7,426,959 to Wang et al., which is incorporated by reference as if fullyset forth herein. The carbon disulfide may be introduced into firstsection 938, second section 940 and/or third section 942 as a solvationfluid.

In some embodiments, the solvation fluid is a hydrocarbon compound thatis capable of donating a hydrogen atom to the formation fluids. In someembodiments, the solvation fluid is capable of donating hydrogen to atleast a portion of the formation fluid, thus forming a mixture ofsolvating fluid and dehydrogenated solvating fluid mixture. Thesolvating fluid/dehydrogenated solvating fluid mixture may enhancesolvation and/or dissolution of a greater portion of the formationfluids as compared to the initial solvation fluid. Examples of suchhydrogen donating solvating fluids include, but are not limited to,tetralin, alkyl substituted tetralin, tetrahydroquinoline, alkylsubstituted hydroquinoline, 1,2-dihydronaphthalene, a distillate cuthaving at least 40% by weight naphthenic aromatic compounds, or mixturesthereof. In some embodiments, the hydrogen donating hydrocarbon compoundis tetralin.

In some embodiments, first section 938, second section 940 and/or thirdsection 942 are heated to a temperature ranging form 175° C. to 350° C.in the presence of the hydrogen donating solvating fluid. At thesetemperatures at least a portion of the formation fluids may behydrogenated by hydrogen donated from the hydrogen donating solvationfluid. In some embodiments, the minerals in the formation act as acatalyst for the hydrogenation process so that elevated formationtemperatures may not be necessary. Hydrogenation of at least a portionof the formation fluids may upgrade a portion of the formation fluidsand form a mixture of upgraded fluids and formation fluids. The mixturemay have a reduced viscosity compared to the initial formation fluids.In situ upgrading and the resulting reduction in viscosity mayfacilitate mobilization and/or recovery of the formation fluids. In situupgrading products that may be separated from the formation fluids atthe surface include, but are not limited to, naphtha, vacuum gas oil,distillate, kerosene, and/or diesel. Dehydrogenation of at least aportion of the hydrogen donating solvent may form a mixture that hasincreased polarity as compared to the initial hydrogen donating solvent.The increased polarity may enhance solvation or dissolution of a portionof the formation fluids and facilitate production and/or mobilization ofthe fluids to production wells 206.

In some embodiments, the hydrogen donating hydrocarbon compound isheated in a surface facility prior to being introduced into firstsection 938, second section 940 and/or third section 942. For example,the hydrogen donating hydrocarbon compound may be heated to atemperature ranging from 100° C. to about 180° C., 120° C. to about 170°C., or from about 130 to 160° C. Heat from the hot hydrogen donatinghydrocarbon compound may facilitate mobilization, recovery and/orhydrogenation of fluids from first section 938, second section 940and/or third section 942.

In some embodiments, a pressurizing fluid is provided in second section940 and/or third section 942 (for example, through injection wells 602B,602C) to increase mobilization of hydrocarbons within the sections. Insome embodiments, a pressurizing fluid is provided to second section 940and/or third section 942 in combination with the solvation fluid toincrease mobility of hydrocarbons within the formation. The pressurizingfluid may include gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, steam,methane, and/or mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, fluids producedfrom the formation (for example, combustion gases, heater exhaust gases,or produced formation fluids) may be used as pressurizing fluid.

Providing a pressurizing fluid may increase a shear rate applied tohydrocarbon fluids in the formation and decrease the viscosity ofnon-Newtonian hydrocarbon fluids within the formation. In someembodiments, pressurizing fluid is provided to the selected sectionbefore significant heating of the formation. Pressurizing fluidinjection may increase the volume of the formation available forproduction. Pressurizing fluid injection may increase a ratio of energyoutput of the formation (energy content of products produced from theformation) to energy input into the formation (energy costs for treatingthe formation).

Providing the pressurizing fluid may increase a pressure in a selectedsection of the formation. The pressure in the selected section may bemaintained below a selected pressure. For example, the pressure may bemaintained below about 150 bars absolute, about 100 bars absolute, orabout 50 bars absolute. In some embodiments, the pressure may bemaintained below about 35 bars absolute. Pressure may be varieddepending on a number of factors (for example, desired production rateor an initial viscosity of tar in the formation). Injection of a gasinto the formation may result in a viscosity reduction of some of theformation fluids.

The pressurizing fluid may enhance the pressure gradient in theformation to flow mobilized hydrocarbons into first section 938. Incertain embodiments, the production of fluids from first section 938allows the pressure in second section 940 and/or third section 942 toremain below a selected pressure (for example, a pressure below whichfracturing of the overburden and/or the underburden may occur). In someembodiments, second section 940 and/or third section 942 have beenheated by heat transfer from first section 938 prior to addition of thepressurizing fluid. In some embodiments, the pressurizing fluid is addedafter second section 940 and/or third section 942 have been heated to adesired temperature by residual heat from first section 938.

In some embodiments, pressure is maintained by controlling flow of thepressurizing fluid into the selected section. In other embodiments, thepressure is controlled by varying a location or locations for injectingthe pressurizing fluid. In other embodiments, pressure is maintained bycontrolling a pressure and/or production rate at production wells 206A,206B and/or 206C. In some embodiments, the pressurized fluid (forexample, carbon dioxide) is separated from the produced fluids andre-introduced into the formation. After production has been stopped, thefluid may be sequestered in the formation.

In certain embodiments, formation fluid is produced from first section938, second section 940 and/or third section 942. The formation fluidmay be produced through production wells 206A, 206B and/or 206C. Theformation fluid produced from second section 940 and/or third section942 may include solvation fluid; hydrocarbons from first section 938,second section 940 and/or third section 942; and/or mixtures thereof.

Producing fluid from production wells in first section 938 may lower theaverage pressure in the formation by forming an expansion volume formobilized fluids in adjacent sections of the formation. Producing fluidfrom production wells 206 in the first section 938 may establish apressure gradient in the formation that draws mobilized fluid fromsecond section 940 and/or third section 942 into the first section.

Hydrocarbons may be produced from first section 938, second section 940and/or third section 942 such that at least about 30%, at least about40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60% or at least about 70% byvolume of the initial mass of hydrocarbons in the formation areproduced. In certain embodiments, additional hydrocarbons may beproduced from the formation such that at least about 60%, at least about70%, or at least about 80% by volume of the initial volume ofhydrocarbons in the sections is produced from the formation through theaddition of solvation fluid.

Fluids produced from production wells described herein may betransported through conduits (pipelines) between the formation andtreatment facilities or refineries. The produced fluids may betransported through a pipeline to another location for furthertransportation (for example, the fluids can be transported to a facilityat a river or a coast through the pipeline where the fluids can befurther transported by tanker to a processing plant or refinery).Incorporation of selected solvation fluids and/or other produced fluids(for example, aromatic hydrocarbons) in the produced formation fluid maystabilize the formation fluid during transportation. In someembodiments, the solvation fluid is separated from the formation fluidsafter transportation to treatment facilities. In some embodiments, atleast a portion of the solvation fluid is separated from the formationfluids prior to transportation. In some embodiments, the fluids producedprior to solvent treatment include heavy hydrocarbons.

In some embodiments, the produced fluids may include at least 85%hydrocarbon liquids by volume and at most 15% gases by volume, at least90% hydrocarbon liquids by volume and at most 10% gases by volume, or atleast 95% hydrocarbon liquids by volume and at most 5% gases by volume.In some embodiments, the mixture produced after solvent and/or pressuretreatment includes solvation fluids, gases, bitumen, visbroken fluids,pyrolyzed fluids, or combinations thereof. The mixture may be separatedinto heavy hydrocarbon liquids, solvation fluid and/or gases. In someembodiments the heavy hydrocarbon liquids, solvation fluid and/orpressuring fluid (for example, carbon dioxide) are re-injected inanother section of the formation.

The heavy hydrocarbon liquids separated from the mixture may have an APIgravity of between 10° and 25°, between 15° and 24°, or between 19° and23°. In some embodiments, the separated hydrocarbon liquids may have anAPI gravity between 19° and 25°, between 20° and 24°, or between 21° and23°. A viscosity of the separated hydrocarbon liquids may be at most 350cp at 5° C. A P-value of the separated hydrocarbon liquids may be atleast 1.1, at least 1.5 or at least 2.0. The separated hydrocarbonliquids may have a bromine number of at most 3% and/or a CAPP number ofat most 2%. In some embodiments, the separated hydrocarbon liquids havean API gravity between 19° and 25°, a viscosity ranging at most 350 cpat 5° C., a P-value of at least 1.1, a CAPP number of at most 2% as1-decene equivalent, and/or a bromine number of at most 2%.

Some hydrocarbon containing formations, such as oil shale formations,may include nahcolite, trona, dawsonite, and/or other minerals withinthe formation. In some embodiments, nahcolite is contained in partiallyunleached or unleached portions of the formation. Unleached portions ofthe formation are parts of the formation where minerals have not beenremoved by groundwater in the formation. For example, in the Piceancebasin in Colorado, U.S.A., unleached oil shale is found below a depth ofabout 500 m below grade. Deep unleached oil shale formations in thePiceance basin center tend to be relatively rich in hydrocarbons. Forexample, about 0.10 liters to about 0.15 liters of oil per kilogram(L/kg) of oil shale may be producible from an unleached oil shaleformation.

Nahcolite is a mineral that includes sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃).Nahcolite may be found in formations in the Green River lakebeds inColorado, U.S.A. In some embodiments, at least about 5 weight %, atleast about 10 weight %, or at least about 20 weight % nahcolite may bepresent in the formation. Dawsonite is a mineral that includes sodiumaluminum carbonate (NaAl(CO₃)(OH)₂). Dawsonite is typically present inthe formation at weight percents greater than about 2 weight % or, insome embodiments, greater than about 5 weight %. Nahcolite and/ordawsonite may dissociate at temperatures used in an in situ heattreatment process. The dissociation is strongly endothermic and mayproduce large amounts of carbon dioxide.

Nahcolite and/or dawsonite may be solution mined prior to, during,and/or following treatment of the formation in situ to avoiddissociation reactions and/or to obtain desired chemical compounds. Incertain embodiments, hot water or steam is used to dissolve nahcolite insitu to form an aqueous sodium bicarbonate solution before the in situheat treatment process is used to process hydrocarbons in the formation.Nahcolite may form sodium ions (Na⁺) and bicarbonate ions (HCO₃ ⁻) inaqueous solution. The solution may be produced from the formationthrough production wells, thus avoiding dissociation reactions duringthe in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments, dawsonite isthermally decomposed to alumina during the in situ heat treatmentprocess for treating hydrocarbons in the formation. The alumina issolution mined after completion of the in situ heat treatment process.

Production wells and/or injection wells used for solution mining and/orfor in situ heat treatment processes may include smart well technology.The smart well technology allows the first fluid to be introduced at adesired zone in the formation. The smart well technology allows thesecond fluid to be removed from a desired zone of the formation.

Formations that include nahcolite and/or dawsonite may be treated usingthe in situ heat treatment process. A perimeter barrier may be formedaround the portion of the formation to be treated. The perimeter barriermay inhibit migration of water into the treatment area. During solutionmining and/or the in situ heat treatment process, the perimeter barriermay inhibit migration of dissolved minerals and formation fluid from thetreatment area. During initial heating, a portion of the formation to betreated may be raised to a temperature below the dissociationtemperature of the nahcolite. The temperature may be at most about 90°C., or in some embodiments, at most about 80° C. The temperature may beany temperature that increases the solvation rate of nahcolite in water,but is also below a temperature at which nahcolite dissociates (aboveabout 95° C. at atmospheric pressure).

A first fluid may be injected into the heated portion. The first fluidmay include water, brine, steam, or other fluids that form a solutionwith nahcolite and/or dawsonite. The first fluid may be at an increasedtemperature, for example, about 90° C., about 95° C., or about 100° C.The increased temperature may be similar to the temperature of theportion of the formation.

In some embodiments, the first fluid is injected at an increasedtemperature into a portion of the formation that has not been heated byheat sources. The increased temperature may be a temperature below aboiling point of the first fluid, for example, about 90° C. for water.Providing the first fluid at an increased temperature increases atemperature of a portion of the formation. In certain embodiments,additional heat may be provided from one or more heat sources in theformation during and/or after injection of the first fluid.

In other embodiments, the first fluid is or includes steam. The steammay be produced by forming steam in a previously heated portion of theformation (for example, by passing water through u-shaped wellbores thathave been used to heat the formation), by heat exchange with fluidsproduced from the formation, and/or by generating steam in standardsteam production facilities. In some embodiments, the first fluid may befluid introduced directly into a hot portion of the portion and producedfrom the hot portion of the formation. The first fluid may then be usedas the first fluid for solution mining.

In some embodiments, heat from a hot previously treated portion of theformation is used to heat water, brine, and/or steam used for solutionmining a new portion of the formation. Heat transfer fluid may beintroduced into the hot previously treated portion of the formation. Theheat transfer fluid may be water, steam, carbon dioxide, and/or otherfluids. Heat may transfer from the hot formation to the heat transferfluid. The heat transfer fluid is produced from the formation throughproduction wells. The heat transfer fluid is sent to a heat exchanger.The heat exchanger may heat water, brine, and/or steam used as the firstfluid to solution mine the new portion of the formation. The heattransfer fluid may be reintroduced into the heated portion of theformation to produce additional hot heat transfer fluid. In someembodiments, heat transfer fluid produced from the formation is treatedto remove hydrocarbons or other materials before being reintroduced intothe formation as part of a remediation process for the heated portion ofthe formation.

Steam injected for solution mining may have a temperature below thepyrolysis temperature of hydrocarbons in the formation. Injected steammay be at a temperature below 250° C., below 300° C., or below 400° C.The injected steam may be at a temperature of at least 150° C., at least135° C., or at least 125° C. Injecting steam at pyrolysis temperaturesmay cause problems as hydrocarbons pyrolyze and hydrocarbon fines mixwith the steam. The mixture of fines and steam may reduce permeabilityand/or cause plugging of production wells and the formation. Thus, theinjected steam temperature is selected to inhibit plugging of theformation and/or wells in the formation.

The temperature of the first fluid may be varied during the solutionmining process. As the solution mining progresses and the nahcolitebeing solution mined is farther away from the injection point, the firstfluid temperature may be increased so that steam and/or water thatreaches the nahcolite to be solution mined is at an elevated temperaturebelow the dissociation temperature of the nahcolite. The steam and/orwater that reaches the nahcolite is also at a temperature below atemperature that promotes plugging of the formation and/or wells in theformation (for example, the pyrolysis temperature of hydrocarbons in theformation).

A second fluid may be produced from the formation following injection ofthe first fluid into the formation. The second fluid may includematerial dissolved in the first fluid. For example, the second fluid mayinclude carbonic acid or other hydrated carbonate compounds formed fromthe dissolution of nahcolite in the first fluid. The second fluid mayalso include minerals and/or metals. The minerals and/or metals mayinclude sodium, aluminum, phosphorus, and other elements.

Solution mining the formation before the in situ heat treatment processallows initial heating of the formation to be provided by heat transferfrom the first fluid used during solution mining. Solution miningnahcolite or other minerals that decompose or dissociate by means ofendothermic reactions before the in situ heat treatment process avoidshaving energy supplied to heat the formation being used to support theseendothermic reactions. Solution mining allows for production of mineralswith commercial value. Removing nahcolite or other minerals before thein situ heat treatment process removes mass from the formation. Thus,less mass is present in the formation that needs to be heated to highertemperatures and heating the formation to higher temperatures may beachieved more quickly and/or more efficiently. Removing mass from theformation also may increase the permeability of the formation.Increasing the permeability may reduce the number of production wellsneeded for the in situ heat treatment process. In certain embodiments,solution mining before the in situ heat treatment process reduces thetime delay between startup of heating of the formation and production ofhydrocarbons by two years or more.

FIG. 227 depicts an embodiment of solution mining well 944. Solutionmining well 944 may include insulated portion 926, input 946, packer948, and return 950. Insulated portion 926 may be adjacent to overburden400 of the formation. In some embodiments, insulated portion 926 is lowconductivity cement. The cement may be low density, low conductivityvermiculite cement or foam cement. Input 946 may direct the first fluidto treatment area 730. Perforations or other types of openings in input946 allow the first fluid to contact formation material in treatmentarea 730. Packer 948 may be a bottom seal for input 946. First fluidpasses through input 946 into the formation. First fluid dissolvesminerals and becomes second fluid. The second fluid may be denser thanthe first fluid. An entrance into return 950 is typically located belowthe perforations or openings that allow the first fluid to enter theformation. Second fluid flows to return 950. The second fluid is removedfrom the formation through return 950.

FIG. 228 depicts a representation of an embodiment of solution miningwell 944. Solution mining well 944 may include input 946 and return 950in casing 952. Input 946 and/or return 950 may be coiled tubing.

FIG. 229 depicts a representation of an embodiment of solution miningwell 944. Insulating portions 926 may surround return 950. Input 946 maybe positioned in return 950. In some embodiments, input 946 mayintroduce the first fluid into the treatment area below the entry pointinto return 950. In some embodiments, crossovers may be used to directfirst fluid flow and second fluid flow so that first fluid is introducedinto the formation from input 946 above the entry point of second fluidinto return 950.

FIG. 230 depicts an elevational view of an embodiment of wells used forsolution mining and/or for an in situ heat treatment process. Solutionmining wells 944 may be placed in the formation in an equilateraltriangle pattern. In some embodiments, the spacing between solutionmining wells 944 may be about 36 m. Other spacings may be used. Heatsources 202 may also be placed in an equilateral triangle pattern.Solution mining wells 944 substitute for certain heat sources of thepattern. In the shown embodiment, the spacing between heat sources 202is about 9 m. The ratio of solution mining well spacing to heat sourcespacing is 4. Other ratios may be used if desired. After solution miningis complete, solution mining wells 944 may be used as production wellsfor the in situ heat treatment process.

In some formations, a portion of the formation with unleached mineralsmay be below a leached portion of the formation. The unleached portionmay be thick and substantially impermeable. A treatment area may beformed in the unleached portion. Unleached portion of the formation tothe sides, above and/or below the treatment area may be used as barriersto fluid flow into and out of the treatment area. A first treatment areamay be solution mined to remove minerals, increase permeability in thetreatment area, and/or increase the richness of the hydrocarbons in thetreatment area. After solution mining the first treatment area, in situheat treatment may be used to treat a second treatment area. In someembodiments, the second treatment area is the same as the firsttreatment area. In some embodiments, the second treatment has a smallervolume than the first treatment area so that heat provided by outermostheat sources to the formation do not raise the temperature of unleachedportions of the formation to the dissociation temperature of theminerals in the unleached portions.

In some embodiments, a leached or partially leached portion of theformation above an unleached portion of the formation may includesignificant amounts of hydrocarbon materials. An in situ heating processmay be used to produce hydrocarbon fluids from the unleached portionsand the leached or partially leached portions of the formation. FIG. 231depicts a representation of a formation with unleached zone 954 belowleached zone 956. Unleached zone 954 may have an initial permeabilitybefore solution mining of less than 0.1 millidarcy. Solution miningwells 944 may be placed in the formation. Solution mining wells 944 mayinclude smart well technology that allows the position of first fluidentrance into the formation and second flow entrance into the solutionmining wells to be changed. Solution mining wells 944 may be used toform first treatment area 730′ in unleached zone 954. Unleached zone 954may initially be substantially impermeable. Unleached portions of theformation may form a top barrier and side barriers around firsttreatment area 730′. After solution mining first treatment area 730′,the portions of solution mining wells 944 adjacent to the firsttreatment area may be converted to production wells and/or heater wells.

Heat sources 202 in first treatment area 730′ may be used to heat thefirst treatment area to pyrolysis temperatures. In some embodiments, oneor more heat sources 202 are placed in the formation before firsttreatment area 730′ is solution mined. The heat sources may be used toprovide initial heating to the formation to raise the temperature of theformation and/or to test the functionality of the heat sources. In someembodiments, one or more heat sources are installed during solutionmining of the first treatment area, or after solution mining iscompleted. After solution mining, heat sources 202 may be used to raisethe temperature of at least a portion of first treatment area 730′ abovethe pyrolysis and/or mobilization temperature of hydrocarbons in theformation to result in the generation of mobile hydrocarbons in thefirst treatment area.

Barrier wells 200 may be introduced into the formation. Ends of barrierwells 200 may extend into and terminate in unleached zone 954. Unleachedzone 954 may be impermeable. In some embodiments, barrier wells 200 arefreeze wells. Barrier wells 200 may be used to form a barrier to fluidflow into or out of unleached zone 956. Barrier wells 200, overburden400, and the unleached material above first treatment area 730′ maydefine second treatment area 730″. In some embodiments, a first fluidmay be introduced into second treatment area 730″ through solutionmining wells 944 to raise the initial temperature of the formation insecond treatment area 730″ and remove any residual soluble minerals fromthe second treatment area. In some embodiments, the top barrier abovefirst treatment area 730′ may be solution mined to remove minerals andcombine first treatment area 730′ and second treatment area 730″ intoone treatment area. After solution mining, heat sources may be activatedto heat the treatment area to pyrolysis temperatures.

FIG. 232 depicts an embodiment for solution mining the formation.Barrier 958 (for example, a frozen barrier and/or a grout barrier) maybe formed around a perimeter of treatment area 730 of the formation. Thefootprint defined by the barrier may have any desired shape such ascircular, square, rectangular, polygonal, or irregular shape. Barrier958 may be any barrier formed to inhibit the flow of fluid into or outof treatment area 730. For example, barrier 958 may include one or morefreeze wells that inhibit water flow through the barrier. Barrier 958may be formed using one or more barrier wells 200. Formation of barrier958 may be monitored using monitor wells 960 and/or by monitoringdevices placed in barrier wells 200.

Water inside treatment area 730 may be pumped out of the treatment areathrough injection wells 602 and/or production wells 206. In certainembodiments, injection wells 602 are used as production wells 206 andvice versa (the wells are used as both injection wells and productionwells). Water may be pumped out until a production rate of water is lowor stops.

Heat may be provided to treatment area 730 from heat sources 202. Heatsources may be operated at temperatures that do not result in thepyrolysis of hydrocarbons in the formation adjacent to the heat sources.In some embodiments, treatment area 730 is heated to a temperature fromabout 90° C. to about 120° C. (for example, a temperature of about 90°C., 95° C., 100° C., 110° C., or 120° C.). In certain embodiments, heatis provided to treatment area 730 from the first fluid injected into theformation. The first fluid may be injected at a temperature from about90° C. to about 120° C. (for example, a temperature of about 90° C., 95°C., 100° C., 110° C., or 120° C.). In some embodiments, heat sources 202are installed in treatment area 730 after the treatment area is solutionmined In some embodiments, some heat is provided from heaters placed ininjection wells 602 and/or production wells 206. A temperature oftreatment area 730 may be monitored using temperature measurementdevices placed in monitoring wells 960 and/or temperature measurementdevices in injection wells 602, production wells 206, and/or heatsources 202.

The first fluid is injected through one or more injection wells 602. Insome embodiments, the first fluid is hot water. The first fluid may mixand/or combine with non-hydrocarbon material that is soluble in thefirst fluid, such as nahcolite, to produce a second fluid. The secondfluid may be removed from the treatment area through injection wells602, production wells 206, and/or heat sources 202. Injection wells 602,production wells 206, and/or heat sources 202 may be heated duringremoval of the second fluid. Heating one or more wells during removal ofthe second fluid may maintain the temperature of the fluid duringremoval of the fluid from the treatment area above a desired value.After producing a desired amount of the soluble non-hydrocarbon materialfrom treatment area 730, solution remaining within the treatment areamay be removed from the treatment area through injection wells 602,production wells 206, and/or heat sources 202. The desired amount of thesoluble non-hydrocarbon material may be less than half of the solublenon-hydrocarbon material, a majority of the soluble non-hydrocarbonmaterial, substantially all of the soluble non-hydrocarbon material, orall of the soluble non-hydrocarbon material. Removing solublenon-hydrocarbon material may produce a relatively high permeabilitytreatment area 730.

Hydrocarbons within treatment area 730 may be pyrolyzed and/or producedusing the in situ heat treatment process following removal of solublenon-hydrocarbon materials. The relatively high permeability treatmentarea allows for easy movement of hydrocarbon fluids in the formationduring in situ heat treatment processing. The relatively highpermeability treatment area provides an enhanced collection area forpyrolyzed and mobilized fluids in the formation. During the in situ heattreatment process, heat may be provided to treatment area 730 from heatsources 202. A mixture of hydrocarbons may be produced from theformation through production wells 206 and/or heat sources 202. Incertain embodiments, injection wells 602 are used as either productionwells and/or heater wells during the in situ heat treatment process.

In some embodiments, a controlled amount of oxidant (for example, airand/or oxygen) is provided to treatment area 730 at or near heat sources202 when a temperature in the formation is above a temperaturesufficient to support oxidation of hydrocarbons. At such a temperature,the oxidant reacts with the hydrocarbons to provide heat in addition toheat provided by electrical heaters in heat sources 202. The controlledamount of oxidant may facilitate oxidation of hydrocarbons in theformation to provide additional heat for pyrolyzing hydrocarbons in theformation. The oxidant may more easily flow through treatment area 730because of the increased permeability of the treatment area afterremoval of the non-hydrocarbon materials. The oxidant may be provided ina controlled manner to control the heating of the formation. The amountof oxidant provided is controlled so that uncontrolled heating of theformation is avoided. Excess oxidant and combustion products may flow toproduction wells in treatment area 730.

Following the in situ heat treatment process, treatment area 730 may becooled by introducing water to produce steam from the hot portion of theformation. Introduction of water to produce steam may vaporize somehydrocarbons remaining in the formation. Water may be injected throughinjection wells 602. The injected water may cool the formation. Theremaining hydrocarbons and generated steam may be produced throughproduction wells 206 and/or heat sources 202. Treatment area 730 may becooled to a temperature near the boiling point of water. The steamproduced from the formation may be used to heat a first fluid used tosolution mine another portion of the formation.

Treatment area 730 may be further cooled to a temperature at which waterwill condense in the formation. Water and/or solvent may be introducedinto and be removed from the treatment area. Removing the condensedwater and/or solvent from treatment area 730 may remove any additionalsoluble material remaining in the treatment area. The water and/orsolvent may entrain non-soluble fluid present in the formation. Fluidmay be pumped out of treatment area 730 through production well 206and/or heat sources 202. The injection and removal of water and/orsolvent may be repeated until a desired water quality within treatmentarea 730 is achieved. Water quality may be measured at the injectionwells, heat sources 202, and/or production wells. The water quality maysubstantially match or exceed the water quality of treatment area 730prior to treatment.

In some embodiments, treatment area 730 may include a leached zonelocated above an unleached zone. The leached zone may have been leachednaturally and/or by a separate leaching process. In certain embodiments,the unleached zone may be at a depth of at least about 500 m. Athickness of the unleached zone may be between about 100 m and about 500m. However, the depth and thickness of the unleached zone may varydepending on, for example, a location of treatment area 730 and/or thetype of formation. In certain embodiments, the first fluid is injectedinto the unleached zone below the leached zone. Heat may also beprovided into the unleached zone.

In certain embodiments, a section of a formation may be left untreatedby solution mining and/or unleached. The unleached section may beproximate a selected section of the formation that has been leachedand/or solution mined by providing the first fluid as described above.The unleached section may inhibit the flow of water into the selectedsection. In some embodiments, more than one unleached section may beproximate a selected section.

Nahcolite may be present in the formation in layers or beds. Prior tosolution mining, such layers may have little or no permeability. Incertain embodiments, solution mining layered or bedded nahcolite fromthe formation causes vertical shifting in the formation. FIG. 233depicts an embodiment of a formation with nahcolite layers in theformation below overburden 400 and before solution mining nahcolite fromthe formation. Hydrocarbon layers 388A have substantially no nahcoliteand hydrocarbon layers 388B have nahcolite. FIG. 234 depicts theformation of FIG. 233 after the nahcolite has been solution mined Layers388B have collapsed due to the removal of the nahcolite from the layers.The collapsing of layers 388B causes compaction of the layers andvertical shifting of the formation. The hydrocarbon richness of layers388B is increased after compaction of the layers. In addition, thepermeability of layers 388B may remain relatively high after compactiondue to removal of the nahcolite. The permeability may be more than 5darcy, more than 1 darcy, or more than 0.5 darcy after verticalshifting. The permeability may provide fluid flow paths to productionwells when the formation is treated using an in situ heat treatmentprocess. The increased permeability may allow for a large spacingbetween production wells. Distances between production wells for the insitu heat treatment system after solution mining may be greater than 10m, greater than 20 m, or greater than 30 meters. Heater wells may beplaced in the formation after removal of nahcolite and the subsequentvertical shifting. Forming heater wellbores and/or installing heaters inthe formation after the vertical shifting protects the heaters frombeing damaged due to the vertical shifting.

In certain embodiments, removing nahcolite from the formationinterconnects two or more wells in the formation. Removing nahcolitefrom zones in the formation may increase the permeability in the zones.Some zones may have more nahcolite than others and become more permeableas the nahcolite is removed. At a certain time, zones with the increasedpermeability may interconnect two or more wells (for example, injectionwells or production wells) in the formation.

FIG. 235 depicts an embodiment of two injection wells interconnected bya zone that has been solution mined to remove nahcolite from the zone.Solution mining wells 944 are used to solution mine hydrocarbon layer388, which contains nahcolite. During the initial portion of thesolution mining process, solution mining wells 944 are used to injectwater and/or other fluids, and to produce dissolved nahcolite fluidsfrom the formation. Each solution mining well 944 is used to injectwater and produce fluid from a near wellbore region as the permeabilityof hydrocarbon layer is not sufficient to allow fluid to flow betweenthe injection wells. In certain embodiments, zone 962 has more nahcolitethan other portions of hydrocarbon layer 388. With increased nahcoliteremoval from zone 962, the permeability of the zone may increase. Thepermeability increases from the wellbores outwards as nahcolite isremoved from zone 962. At some point during solution mining of theformation, the permeability of zone 962 increases to allow solutionmining wells 944 to become interconnected such that fluid will flowbetween the wells. At this time, one solution mining well 944 may beused to inject water while the other solution mining well is used toproduce fluids from the formation in a continuous process. Injecting inone well and producing from a second well may be more economical andmore efficient in removing nahcolite, as compared to injecting andproducing through the same well. In some embodiments, additional wellsmay be drilled into zone 962 and/or hydrocarbon layer 388 in addition tosolution mining wells 944. The additional wells may be used to circulateadditional water and/or to produce fluids from the formation. The wellsmay later be used as heater wells and/or production wells for the insitu heat treatment process treatment of hydrocarbon layer 388.

In some embodiments, a treatment area has nahcolite beds above and/orbelow the treatment area. The nahcolite beds may be relatively thin (forexample, about 5 m to about 10 m in thickness). In an embodiment, thenahcolite beds are solution mined using horizontal solution mining wellsin the nahcolite beds. The nahcolite beds may be solution mined in ashort amount of time (for example, in less than 6 months). Aftersolution mining of the nahcolite beds, the treatment area and thenahcolite beds may be heated using one or more heaters. The heaters maybe placed either vertically, horizontally, or at other angles within thetreatment area and the nahcolite beds. The nahcolite beds and thetreatment area may then undergo the in situ heat treatment process.

In some embodiments, the solution mining wells in the nahcolite beds areconverted to production wells. The production wells may be used toproduce fluids during the in situ heat treatment process. Productionwells in the nahcolite bed above the treatment area may be used toproduce vapors or gas (for example, gas hydrocarbons) from theformation. Production wells in the nahcolite bed below the treatmentarea may be used to produce liquids (for example, liquid hydrocarbons)from the formation.

FIG. 236 depicts a representation of an embodiment for treating aportion of a formation having hydrocarbon containing layer 388 betweenupper nahcolite bed 964 and lower nahcolite bed 964′. In an embodiment,nahcolite beds 964, 964′ have thicknesses of about 5 m and includerelatively large amounts of nahcolite (for example, over about 50 weightpercent nahcolite). In the embodiment, hydrocarbon containing layer 388is at a depth of over 595 meters below the surface, has a thickness of40 m or more and has oil shale with an average richness of over 100liters per metric ton. Hydrocarbon containing layer 388 may containrelatively little nahcolite, though the hydrocarbon containing layer maycontain some seams of nahcolite typically with thicknesses less than 3m.

Solution mining wells 944 may be formed in nahcolite beds 964, 964′(into and out of the page as depicted in FIG. 236). FIG. 237 depicts arepresentation of a portion of the formation that is orthogonal to theformation depicted in FIG. 236 and passes through one of solution miningwells 944 in nahcolite bed 964. Solution mining wells 944 may be spacedapart by 25 m or more. Hot water and/or steam may be circulated into theformation from solution mining wells 944 to dissolve nahcolite innahcolite beds 964, 964′. Dissolved nahcolite may be produced from theformation through solution mining wells 944. After completion ofsolution mining, production liners may be installed in one or more ofthe solution mining wells 944 and the solution mining wells may beconverted to production wells for an in situ heat treatment process usedto produce hydrocarbons from hydrocarbon containing layer 388.

Before, during or after solution mining of nahcolite beds 964, 964′,heater wellbores 490 may be formed in the formation in a pattern (forexample, in a triangular pattern as depicted in FIG. 237 with wellboresgoing into and out of the page). As depicted in FIG. 236, portions ofheater wellbores 490 may pass through nahcolite bed 964. Portions ofheater wellbores 490 may pass into or through nahcolite bed 964′.Heaters wellbores 490 may be oriented at an angle (as depicted in FIG.236), oriented vertically, or oriented substantially horizontally if thenahcolite layers dip. Heaters may be placed in heater wellbores 490.Heating sections of the heaters may provide heat to hydrocarboncontaining layer 388. The wellbore pattern may allow superposition ofheat from the heaters to raise the temperature of hydrocarbon containinglayer 388 to a desired temperature in a reasonable amount of time.

Packers, cement, or other sealing systems may be used to inhibitformation fluid from moving up wellbores 490 past an upper portion ofnahcolite bed 964 if formation above the nahcolite bed is not to betreated. Packers, cement, or other sealing systems may be used toinhibit formation fluid past a lower portion of nahcolite bed 964′ ifformation below the nahcolite bed is not to be treated and wellbores 490extend past the nahcolite bed.

After solution mining of nahcolite beds 964, 964′ is completed, heatersin heater wellbores 490 may raise the temperature of hydrocarboncontaining layer 388 to mobilization and/or pyrolysis temperatures.Formation fluid generated from hydrocarbon containing layer 388 may beproduced from the formation through converted solution mining wells 944.Initially, vaporized formation fluid may flow along heater wellbores 490to converted solution mining wells 944 in nahcolite bed 964. Initially,liquid formation fluid may flow along heater wellbores 490 to convertedsolution mining wells 944 in nahcolite bed 964′. As heating iscontinued, fractures caused by heating and/or increased permeability dueto the removal of material may provide additional fluid pathways tonahcolite beds 964, 964′ so that formation fluid generated fromhydrocarbon containing layer 388 may be produced from converted solutionmining wells 944 in the nahcolite beds. Converted solution mining wells944 in nahcolite bed 964 may be used to primarily produce vaporizedformation fluids. Converted solution mining wells 944 in nahcolite bed964′ may be used to primarily produce liquid formation fluid.

In some embodiments, the second fluid produced from the formation duringsolution mining is used to produce sodium bicarbonate. Sodiumbicarbonate may be used in the food and pharmaceutical industries, inleather tanning, in fire retardation, in wastewater treatment, and influe gas treatment (flue gas desulphurization and hydrogen chloridereduction). The second fluid may be kept pressurized and at an elevatedtemperature when removed from the formation. The second fluid may becooled in a crystallizer to precipitate sodium bicarbonate.

In some embodiments, the second fluid produced from the formation duringsolution mining is used to produce sodium carbonate, which is alsoreferred to as soda ash. Sodium carbonate may be used in the manufactureof glass, in the manufacture of detergents, in water purification,polymer production, tanning, paper manufacturing, effluentneutralization, metal refining, sugar extraction, and/or cementmanufacturing. The second fluid removed from the formation may be heatedin a treatment facility to form sodium carbonate (soda ash) and/orsodium carbonate brine. Heating sodium bicarbonate will form sodiumcarbonate according to the equation:

2NaHCO₃→Na₂CO₃+CO₂+H₂O.  (EQN. 10)

In certain embodiments, the heat for heating the sodium bicarbonate isprovided using heat from the formation. For example, a heat exchangerthat uses steam produced from the water introduced into the hotformation may be used to heat the second fluid to dissociationtemperatures of the sodium bicarbonate. In some embodiments, the secondfluid is circulated through the formation to utilize heat in theformation for further reaction. Steam and/or hot water may also be addedto facilitate circulation. The second fluid may be circulated through aheated portion of the formation that has been subjected to the in situheat treatment process to produce hydrocarbons from the formation. Atleast a portion of the carbon dioxide generated during sodium carbonatedissociation may be adsorbed on carbon that remains in the formationafter the in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments, thesecond fluid is circulated through conduits previously used to heat theformation.

In some embodiments, higher temperatures are used in the formation (forexample, above about 120° C., above about 130° C., above about 150° C.,or below about 250° C.) during solution mining of nahcolite. The firstfluid is introduced into the formation under pressure sufficient toinhibit sodium bicarbonate from dissociating to produce carbon dioxide.The pressure in the formation may be maintained at sufficiently highpressures to inhibit such nahcolite dissociation but below pressuresthat would result in fracturing the formation. In addition, the pressurein the formation may be maintained high enough to inhibit steamformation if hot water is being introduced in the formation. In someembodiments, a portion of the nahcolite may begin to decompose in situ.In such cases, nahcolite is removed from the formation as soda ash. Ifsoda ash is produced from solution mining of nahcolite, the soda ash maybe transported to a separate facility for treatment. The soda ash may betransported through a pipeline to the separate facility.

As described above, in certain embodiments, following removal ofnahcolite from the formation, the formation is treated using the in situheat treatment process to produce formation fluids from the formation.In some embodiments, the formation is treating using the in situ heattreatment process before solution mining nahcolite from the formation.The nahcolite may be converted to sodium carbonate (from sodiumbicarbonate) during the in situ heat treatment process. The sodiumcarbonate may be solution mined as described above for solution miningnahcolite prior to the in situ heat treatment process.

In some formations, dawsonite is present in the formation. Dawsonitewithin the heated portion of the formation decomposes during heating ofthe formation to pyrolysis temperature. Dawsonite typically decomposesat temperatures above 270° C. according to the reaction:

2NaAl(OH)₂CO₃→Na₂CO₃+Al₂O₃+2H₂O+CO₂.  (EQN. 11)

Sodium carbonate may be removed from the formation by solution miningthe formation with water or other fluid into which sodium carbonate issoluble. In certain embodiments, alumina formed by dawsonitedecomposition is solution mined using a chelating agent. The chelatingagent may be injected through injection wells, production wells, and/orheater wells used for solution mining nahcolite and/or the in situ heattreatment process (for example, injection wells 602, production wells206, and/or heat sources 202 depicted in FIG. 232). The chelating agentmay be an aqueous acid. In certain embodiments, the chelating agent isEDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid). Other examples of possiblechelating agents include, but are not limited to, ethylenediamine,porphyrins, dimercaprol, nitrilotriacetic acid,diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid, phosphoric acids, acetic acid,acetoxy benzoic acids, nicotinic acid, pyruvic acid, citric acid,tartaric acid, malonic acid, imidizole, ascorbic acid, phenols, hydroxyketones, sebacic acid, and boric acid. The mixture of chelating agentand alumina may be produced through production wells or other wells usedfor solution mining and/or the in situ heat treatment process (forexample, injection wells 602, production wells 206, and/or heat sources202, which are depicted in FIG. 232). The alumina may be separated fromthe chelating agent in a treatment facility. The recovered chelatingagent may be recirculated back to the formation to solution mine morealumina.

In some embodiments, alumina within the formation may be solution minedusing a basic fluid after the in situ heat treatment process. Basicfluids include, but are not limited to, sodium hydroxide, ammonia,magnesium hydroxide, magnesium carbonate, sodium carbonate, potassiumcarbonate, pyridine, and amines. In an embodiment, sodium carbonatebrine, such as 0.5 Normal Na₂CO₃, is used to solution mine alumina.Sodium carbonate brine may be obtained from solution mining nahcolitefrom the formation. Obtaining the basic fluid by solution mining thenahcolite may significantly reduce costs associated with obtaining thebasic fluid. The basic fluid may be injected into the formation througha heater well and/or an injection well. The basic fluid may combine withalumina to form an alumina solution that is removed from the formation.The alumina solution may be removed through a heater well, injectionwell, or production well.

Alumina may be extracted from the alumina solution in a treatmentfacility. In an embodiment, carbon dioxide is bubbled through thealumina solution to precipitate the alumina from the basic fluid. Carbondioxide may be obtained from dissociation of nahcolite, from the in situheat treatment process, or from decomposition of the dawsonite duringthe in situ heat treatment process.

In certain embodiments, a formation may include portions that aresignificantly rich in either nahcolite or dawsonite only. For example, aformation may contain significant amounts of nahcolite (for example, atleast about 20 weight %, at least about 30 weight %, or at least about40 weight %) in a depocenter of the formation. The depocenter maycontain only about 5 weight % or less dawsonite on average. However, inbottom layers of the formation, a weight percent of dawsonite may beabout 10 weight % or even as high as about 25 weight %. In suchformations, it may be advantageous to solution mine for nahcolite onlyin nahcolite-rich areas, such as the depocenter, and solution mine fordawsonite only in the dawsonite-rich areas, such as the bottom layers.This selective solution mining may significantly reduce fluid costs,heating costs, and/or equipment costs associated with operating thesolution mining process.

In certain formations, dawsonite composition varies between layers inthe formation. For example, some layers of the formation may havedawsonite and some layers may not. In certain embodiments, more heat isprovided to layers with more dawsonite than to layers with lessdawsonite. Tailoring heat input to provide more heat to certaindawsonite layers more uniformly heats the formation as the reaction todecompose dawsonite absorbs some of the heat intended for pyrolyzinghydrocarbons. FIG. 238 depicts an embodiment for heating a formationwith dawsonite in the formation. Hydrocarbon layer 388 may be cored toassess the dawsonite composition of the hydrocarbon layer. The mineralcomposition may be assessed using, for example, FTIR (Fourier transforminfrared spectroscopy) or x-ray diffraction. Assessing the corecomposition may also assess the nahcolite composition of the core. Afterassessing the dawsonite composition, heater 412 may be placed inwellbore 490. Heater 412 includes sections to provide more heat tohydrocarbon layers with more dawsonite in the layers (hydrocarbon layers388D). Hydrocarbon layers with less dawsonite (hydrocarbon layers 388C)are provided with less heat by heater 412. Heat output of heater 412 maybe tailored by, for example, adjusting the resistance of the heateralong the length of the heater. In one embodiment, heater 412 is atemperature limited heater, described herein, that has a highertemperature limit (for example, higher Curie temperature) in sectionsproximate layers 388D as compared to the temperature limit (Curietemperature) of sections proximate layers 388C. The resistance of heater412 may also be adjusted by altering the resistive conducting materialsalong the length of the heater to supply a higher energy input (wattsper meter) adjacent to dawsonite rich layers.

Solution mining dawsonite and nahcolite may be relatively simpleprocesses that produce alumina and soda ash from the formation. In someembodiments, hydrocarbons produced from the formation using the in situheat treatment process may be fuel for a power plant that producesdirect current (DC) electricity at or near the site of the in situ heattreatment process. The produced DC electricity may be used on the siteto produce aluminum metal from the alumina using the Hall process.Aluminum metal may be produced from the alumina by melting the aluminain a treatment facility on the site. Generating the DC electricity atthe site may save on costs associated with using hydrotreaters,pipelines, or other treatment facilities associated with transportingand/or treating hydrocarbons produced from the formation using the insitu heat treatment process.

In some embodiments, acid may be introduced into the formation throughselected wells to increase the porosity adjacent to the wells. Forexample, acid may be injected if the formation includes limestone ordolomite. The acid used to treat the selected wells may be acid producedduring in situ heat treatment of a section of the formation (forexample, hydrochloric acid), or acid produced from byproducts of the insitu heat treatment process (for example, sulfuric acid produced fromhydrogen sulfide or sulfur).

In some embodiments, a saline rich zone is located at or near anunleached portion of the formation. The saline rich zone may be anaquifer in which water has leached out nahcolite and/or other minerals.A high flow rate may pass through the saline rich zone. Saline waterfrom the saline rich zone may be used to solution mine another portionof the formation. In certain embodiments, a steam and electricitycogeneration facility may be used to heat the saline water prior to usefor solution mining.

FIG. 239 depicts a representation of an embodiment for solution miningwith a steam and electricity cogeneration facility. Treatment area 730may be formed in unleached portion 954 of the formation (for example, anoil shale formation). Several treatment areas 730 may be formed inunleached portion 954 leaving top, side, and/or bottom walls ofunleached formation as barriers around the individual treatment areas toinhibit inflow and outflow of formation fluid during the in situ heattreatment process. The thickness of the walls surrounding the treatmentareas may be 10 m or more. For example, the side wall near closest tosaline zone 966 may be 60 m or more thick, and the top wall may be 30 mor more thick.

Treatment area 730 may have significant amounts of nahcolite. Salinezone 966 is located at or near treatment area 730. In certainembodiments, zone 966 is located up dip from treatment area 730. Zone966 may be leached or partially leached such that the zone is mainlyfilled with saline water.

In certain embodiments, saline water is removed (pumped) from zone 966using production well 206. Production well 206 may be located at or nearthe lowest portion of zone 966 so that saline water flows into theproduction well. Saline water removed from zone 966 is heated to hotwater and/or steam temperatures in facility 968. Facility 968 may burnhydrocarbons to run generators that produce electricity. Facility 968may burn gaseous and/or liquid hydrocarbons to make electricity. In someembodiments, pulverized coal is used to make electricity. Theelectricity generated may be used to provide electrical power forheaters or other electrical operations (for example, pumping). Wasteheat from the generators is used to make hot water and/or steam from thesaline water. After the in situ heat treatment process of one or moretreatment areas 730 results in the production of hydrocarbons, at leasta portion of the produced hydrocarbons may be used as fuel for facility968.

The hot water and/or steam made by facility 968 is provided to solutionmining well 944. Solution mining well 944 is used to solution minetreatment area 730. Nahcolite and/or other minerals are removed fromtreatment area 730 by solution mining well 944. The nahcolite may beremoved as a nahcolite solution from treatment area 730. The solutionremoved from treatment area 730 may be a brine solution with dissolvednahcolite. Heat from the removed nahcolite solution may be used infacility 968 to heat saline water from zone 966 and/or other fluids. Thenahcolite solution may then be injected through injection well 602 intozone 966. In some embodiments, injection well 602 injects the nahcolitesolution into zone 966 up dip from production well 206. Injection mayoccur a significant distance up dip so that nahcolite solution may becontinuously injected as saline water is removed from the zone withoutthe two fluids substantially intermixing. In some embodiments, thenahcolite solution from treatment area 730 is provided to injection well602 without passing through facility 968 (the nahcolite solutionbypasses the facility).

The nahcolite solution injected into zone 966 may be left in the zonepermanently or for an extended period of time (for example, aftersolution mining, production well 206 may be shut in). In someembodiments, the nahcolite stored in zone 966 is accessed at latertimes. The nahcolite may be produced by removing saline water from zone966 and processing the saline water to make sodium bicarbonate and/orsoda ash.

Solution mining using saline water from zone 966 and heat from facility968 to heat the saline water may be a high efficiency process forsolution mining treatment area 730. Facility 968 is efficient atproviding heat to the saline water. Using the saline water to solutionmine decreases costs associated with pumping and/or transporting waterto the treatment site. Additionally, solution mining treatment area 730preheats the treatment area for any subsequent heat treatment of thetreatment area, enriches the hydrocarbon content in the treatment areaby removing nahcolite, and/or creates more permeability in the treatmentarea by removing nahcolite.

In certain embodiments, treatment area 730 is further treated using anin situ heat treatment process following solution mining of thetreatment area. A portion of the electricity generated in facility 968may be used to power heaters for the in situ heat treatment process.

In some embodiments, a perimeter barrier may be formed around theportion of the formation to be treated. The perimeter barrier mayinhibit migration of formation fluid into or out of the treatment area.The perimeter barrier may be a frozen barrier and/or a grout barrier.After formation of the perimeter barrier, the treatment area may beprocessed to produce desired products.

Formations that include non-hydrocarbon materials may be treated toremove and/or dissolve a portion of the non-hydrocarbon materials from asection of the formation before hydrocarbons are produced from thesection. In some embodiments, the non-hydrocarbon materials are removedby solution mining. Removing a portion of the non-hydrocarbon materialsmay reduce the carbon dioxide generation sources present in theformation. Removing a portion of the non-hydrocarbon materials mayincrease the porosity and/or permeability of the section of theformation. Removing a portion of the non-hydrocarbon materials mayresult in a raised temperature in the section of the formation.

After solution mining, some of the wells in the treatment may beconverted to heater wells, injection wells, and/or production wells. Insome embodiments, additional wells are formed in the treatment area. Thewells may be heater wells, injection wells, and/or production wells.Logging techniques may be employed to assess the physicalcharacteristics, including any vertical shifting resulting from thesolution mining, and/or the composition of material in the formation.Packing, baffles or other techniques may be used to inhibit formationfluid from entering the heater wells. The heater wells may be activatedto heat the formation to a temperature sufficient to support combustion.

One or more production wells may be positioned in permeable sections ofthe treatment area. Production wells may be horizontally and/orvertically oriented. For example, production wells may be positioned inareas of the formation that have a permeability of greater than 5 darcyor 10 darcy. In some embodiments, production wells may be positionednear a perimeter barrier. A production well may allow water andproduction fluids to be removed from the formation. Positioning theproduction well near a perimeter barrier enhances the flow of fluidsfrom the warmer zones of the formation to the cooler zones.

FIG. 240 depicts an embodiment of a process for treating a hydrocarboncontaining formation with a combustion front. Barrier 958 (for example,a frozen barrier or a grout barrier) may be formed around a perimeter oftreatment area 730 of the formation. The footprint defined by thebarrier may have any desired shape such as circular, square,rectangular, polygonal, or irregular shape. Barrier 958 may be formedusing one or more barrier wells 200. The barrier may be any barrierformed to inhibit the flow of fluid into or out of treatment area 730.In some embodiments, barrier 958 may be a double barrier.

Heat may be provided to treatment area 730 through heaters positioned ininjection wells 602. In some embodiments, the heaters in injection wells602 heat formation adjacent to the injections wells to temperaturessufficient to support combustion. Heaters in injection wells 602 mayraise the formation near the injection wells to temperatures from about90° C. to about 120° C. or higher (for example, a temperature of about90° C., 95° C., 100° C., 110° C., or 120° C.).

Injection wells 602 may be used to introduce a combustion fuel, anoxidant, steam and/or a heat transfer fluid into treatment area 730,either before, during, or after heat is provided to treatment area 730from heaters. In some embodiments, injection wells 602 are incommunication with each other to allow the introduced fluid to flow fromone well to another. Injection wells 602 may be located at positionsthat are relatively far away from perimeter barrier 958. Introducedfluid may cause combustion of hydrocarbons in treatment area 730. Heatfrom the combustion may heat treatment area 730 and mobilize fluidstoward production wells 206.

A temperature of treatment area 730 may be monitored using temperaturemeasurement devices placed in monitoring wells and/or temperaturemeasurement devices in injection wells 602, production wells 206, and/orheater wells.

In some embodiments, a controlled amount of oxidant (for example, airand/or oxygen) is provided in injection wells 602 to advance a heatfront towards production wells 206. In some embodiments, the controlledamount of oxidant is introduced into the formation after solution mininghas established permeable interconnectivity between at least twoinjection wells. The amount of oxidant is controlled to limit theadvancement rate of the heat front and to limit the temperature of theheat front. The advancing heat front may pyrolyze hydrocarbons. The highpermeability in the formation allows the pyrolyzed hydrocarbons tospread in the formation towards production wells without being overtakenby the advancing heat front.

Vaporized formation fluid and/or gas formed during the combustionprocess may be removed through gas wells 970 and/or injection wells 602.Venting of gases through gas wells 970 and/or injection wells 602 mayforce the combustion front in a desired direction.

In some embodiments, the formation may be heated to a temperaturesufficient to cause pyrolysis of the formation fluid by the steam and/orheat transfer fluid. The steam and/or heat transfer fluid may be heatedto temperatures of about 300° C., about 400° C., about 500° C., or about600° C. In certain embodiments, the steam and/or heat transfer fluid maybe co-injected with the fuel and/or oxidant.

FIG. 241 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment fortreating a hydrocarbon containing formation with a combustion front. Asthe combustion front is initiated and/or fueled through injection wells602, formation fluid near periphery 972 of the combustion front becomesmobile and flow towards production wells 206 located proximate barrier958. Injection wells may include smart well technology. Combustionproducts and noncondensable formation fluid may be removed from theformation through gas wells 970. In some embodiments, no gas wells areformed in the formation. In such embodiments, formation fluid,combustion products and noncondensable formation fluid are producedthrough production wells 206. In embodiments that include gas wells 970,condensable formation fluid may be produced through production well 206.In some embodiments, production well 206 is located below injection well602. Production well 206 may be about 1 m, 5 m, 10 m or more belowinjection well 602. Production well may be a horizontal well. Periphery972 of the combustion front may advance from the toe of production well206 towards the heel of the production well. Production well 206 mayinclude a perforated liner that allows hydrocarbons to flow into theproduction well. In some embodiments, a catalyst may be placed inproduction well 206. The catalyst may upgrade and/or stabilize formationfluid in the production well.

In certain embodiments, a temperature measurement tool assesses theactive impedance of an energized heater. The temperature measurementtool may utilize the frequency domain analysis algorithm associated withPartial Discharge measurement technology (PD) coupled with timed domainreflectometer measurement technology (TDR). A set of frequency domainanalysis tools may be applied to a TDR signature. This process mayprovide unique information in the analysis of the energized heater suchas, but not limited to, an impedance log of the entire length of theheater per unit length. The temperature measurement tool may providecertain advantages for assessing the temperature of a downhole heater.

In certain embodiments, the temperature measurement tool assesses theimpedance per unit length and gives a profile on the entire length ofthe heated section of the heater. The impedance profile may be used inassociation with laboratory data for the heater (such as temperature andresistance profiles for heaters measured at various loads andfrequencies) to assess the temperature per unit length of the heatedsection. The impedance profile may also be used to assess variouscomputer models for heaters that are used in association with thereservoir simulations.

In certain embodiments, the temperature measurement tool assesses anaccurate impedance profile of a heater in a specific formation after anumber of heater wells have been installed and energized in the specificformation. The accurate impedance profile may assess the actual reactiveand real power consumption for each heater that is used similarly. Thisinformation may be used to properly size surface electrical distributionequipment and/or eliminate any extra capacity designed to accommodateany anticipated heater impedance turndown ratio or any unknown powerfactor or reactive power consumption for the heaters.

In certain embodiments, the temperature measurement tool is used totroubleshoot malfunctioning heaters and assess the impedance profile ofthe length of the heated section. The impedance profile may be able toaccurately predict the location of a faulted section and its relativeimpedance to ground. This information may be used to accurately assessthe appropriate reduction in surface voltage to allow the heater tocontinue to operate in a limited capacity. This method may be morepreferable than abandoning the heater in the formation.

In certain embodiments, frequency domain PD testing offers an improvedset of PD characterization tools. A basic set of frequency domain PDtesting tools are described in “The Case for Frequency Domain PD TestingIn The Context Of Distribution Cable”, Steven Boggs, ElectricalInsulation Magazine, IEEE, Vol. 19, Issue 4, July-August 2003, pages13-19, which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.Frequency domain PD detection sensitivity under field conditions may beone to two orders of magnitude greater than for time domain testing as aresult of there not being a need to trigger on the first PD pulse abovethe broadband noise, and the filtering effect of the cable between thePD detection site and the terminations. As a result of this greatlyincreased sensitivity and the set of characterization tools, frequencydomain PD testing has been developed into a highly sensitive andreliable tool for characterizing the condition of distribution cableduring normal operation while the cable is energized.

Subsurface formations (for example, tar sands or heavy hydrocarbonformations) include dielectric media. Dielectric media may exhibitconductivity, relative dielectric constant, and loss tangents attemperatures below 100° C. Loss of conductivity, relative dielectricconstant, and dissipation factor may occur as the formation is heated totemperatures above 100° C. due to the loss of moisture contained in theinterstitial spaces in the rock matrix of the formation. To prevent lossof moisture, formations may be heated at temperatures and pressures thatminimize vaporization of water. Conductive solutions may be added to theformation to help maintain the electrical properties of the formation.

Formations may be heated using electrodes to temperatures and pressuresthat vaporize the water and/or conductive solutions. Material used toproduce the current flow, however, may become damaged due to heat stressand/or loss of conductive solutions may limit heat transfer in thelayer. In addition, when using electrodes, magnetic fields may form. Dueto the presence of magnetic fields, non-ferromagnetic materials may bedesired for overburden casings.

Heat sources with electrically conducting material may allow currentflow through a formation from one heat source to another heat source.Current flow between the heat sources with electrically conductingmaterial may heat the formation to increase permeability in theformation and/or lower viscosity of hydrocarbons in the formation.Heating using current flow or “joule heating” through the formation mayheat portions of the hydrocarbon layer in a shorter amount of timerelative to heating the hydrocarbon layer using conductive heatingbetween heaters spaced apart in the formation.

In some embodiments, heat sources that include electrically conductivematerials are positioned in a hydrocarbon layer. Portions of thehydrocarbon layer may be heated from current generated from the heatsources that flows from the heat sources and through the layer.Positioning of electrically conductive heat sources in a hydrocarbonlayer at depths sufficient to minimize loss of conductive solutions mayallow hydrocarbons layers to be heated at relatively high temperaturesover a period of time with minimal loss of water and/or conductivesolutions.

FIGS. 242-247 depict schematics of embodiments for treating a subsurfaceformation using heat sources having electrically conductive material.FIG. 242 depicts first conduit 992 and second conduit 994 positioned inwellbores 490, 490′ in hydrocarbon layer 388. In certain embodiments,first conduit 992 and/or second conduit 994 are conductors (for example,exposed metal or bare metal conductors). In some embodiments, conduits992, 994 are oriented substantially horizontally or at an incline in theformation. Conduits 992, 994 may be positioned in or near a bottomportion of hydrocarbon layer 388.

Wellbores 490, 490′ may be open wellbores. In some embodiments, theconduits extend from a portion of the wellbore. In some embodiments, thevertical or overburden portions of wellbores 490, 490′ are cemented withnon-conductive cement or foam cement. Wellbores 490, 490′ may includepackers 948 and/or electrical insulators 996. In some embodiments,packers 948 are not necessary. Electrical insulators 996 may insulateconduits 992, 994 from casing 398.

In some embodiments, the portion of casing 398 adjacent to overburden400 is made of material that inhibits ferromagnetic effects. The casingin the overburden may be made of fiberglass, polymers, and/or anon-ferromagnetic metal (for example, a high manganese steel).Inhibiting ferromagnetic effects in the portion of casing 398 adjacentto overburden 400 may reduce heat losses to the overburden and/orelectrical losses in the overburden. In some embodiments, overburdencasings 398 include non-metallic materials such as fiberglass,polyvinylchloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinylchloride (CPVC),high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and/or non-ferromagnetic metals (forexample, non-ferromagnetic high manganese steels). HDPEs with workingtemperatures in a range for use in overburden 400 include HDPEsavailable from Dow Chemical Co., Inc. (Midland, Mich., U.S.A.). In someembodiments, casing 398 includes carbon steel coupled on the insideand/or outside diameter of a non-ferromagnetic metal (for example,carbon steel clad with copper or aluminum) to inhibit ferromagneticeffects or inductive effects in the carbon steel. Othernon-ferromagnetic metals include, but are not limited to, manganesesteels with at least 15% by weight manganese, 0.7% by weight carbon, 2%by weight chromium, iron aluminum alloys with at least 18% by weightaluminum, and austenitic stainless steels such as 304 stainless steel or316 stainless steel.

Portions or all of conduits 992, 994 may include electrically conductivematerial 998. Electrically conductive materials include, but are notlimited to, thick walled copper, heat treated copper (“hardenedcopper”), carbon steel clad with copper, aluminum, or aluminum or copperclad with stainless steel. Conduits 992, 994 may have dimensions andcharacteristics that enable the conduits to be used later as injectionwells and/or production wells. Conduit 992 and/or conduit 994 mayinclude perforations or openings 1000 to allow fluid to flow into or outof the conduits. In some embodiments, portions of conduit 992 and/orconduit 994 are pre-perforated with coverings initially placed over theperforations and removed later. In some embodiments, conduit 992 and/orconduit 994 include slotted liners.

After a desired time (for example, after injectivity has beenestablished in the layer), the coverings of the perforations may beremoved or slots may be opened to open portions of conduit 992 and/orconduit 994 to convert the conduits to production wells and/or injectionwells. In some embodiments, coverings are removed by inserting anexpandable mandrel in the conduits to remove coverings and/or openslots. In some embodiments, heat is used to degrade material placed inthe openings in conduit 992 and/or conduit 994. After degradation, fluidmay flow into or out of conduit 992 and/or conduit 994.

Power to electrically conductive material 998 may be supplied from oneor more surface power supplies through conductors 1002, 1002′.Conductors 1002, 1002′ may be cables supported on a tubular or othersupport member. In some embodiments, conductors 1002, 1002′ are conduitsthrough which electricity flows to conduit 992 or conduit 994.Electrical connectors 1004 may be used to electrically couple conductors1002, 1002′ to conduits 992, 994. Conductor 1002 and conductor 1002′ maybe coupled to the same power supply to form an electrical circuit.Sections of casing 398 (for example a section between packers 948 andelectrical connectors 1004) may include or be made of insulatingmaterial (such as enamel coating) to prevent leakage of electricalcurrent towards the surface of the formation.

In some embodiments, a direct current power source is supplied to eitherfirst conduit 992 or second conduit 994. In some embodiments, timevarying current is supplied to first conduit 992 and/or second conduit994. Current flowing from conductors 1002, 1002′ to conduits 992, 994may be low frequency current (for example, about 50 Hz, about 60 Hz, orfrequencies up to about 1000 Hz). A voltage differential between thefirst conduit 992 and second conduit 994 may range from about 100 voltsto about 1200 volts, from about 200 volts to about 1000 volts, or fromabout 500 volts to 700 volts. In some embodiments, higher frequencycurrent and/or higher voltage differentials may be utilized. Use of timevarying current may allow longer conduits to be positioned in theformation. Use of longer conduits allows more of the formation to beheated at one time and may decrease overall operating expenses. Currentflowing to first conduit 992 may flow through hydrocarbon layer 388 tosecond conduit 994, and back to the power supply. Flow of currentthrough hydrocarbon layer 388 may cause resistance heating of thehydrocarbon layer.

During the heating process, current flow in conduits 992, 994 may bemeasured at the surface. Measuring of the current entering conduits 992,994 may be used to monitor the progress of the heating process. Currentbetween conduits 992, 994 may increase steadily until a predeterminedupper limit (I_(max)) is reached. In some embodiments, vaporization ofwater occurs at the conduits, at which time a drop in current isobserved. Current flow of the system is indicated by arrows 1006.Current flow in hydrocarbon containing layer 388 between conduits 992,994 heats the hydrocarbon layer between and around the conduits.Conduits 992, 994 may be part of a pattern of conduits in the formationthat provide multiple pathways between wells so that a large portion oflayer 388 is heated. The pattern may be a regular pattern (for example,a triangular or rectangular pattern) or an irregular pattern.

FIG. 243 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a system for treating asubsurface formation using electrically conductive material. Conduit1008 and ground 1010 may extend from wellbores 490, 490′ intohydrocarbon layer 388. Ground 1010 may be a rod or a conduit positionedin hydrocarbon layer 388 between about 5 m and about 30 m away fromconduit 1008 (for example, about 10 m, about 15 m, or about 20 m). Insome embodiments, electrical insulators 996′ electrically isolate ground1010 from casing 398′ and/or conduit section—1012 positioned in wellbore490′. As shown, ground 1010 is a conduit that includes openings 1000.

Conduit 1008 may include sections 1014, 1016 of conductive material 998.Sections 1014, 1016 may be separated by electrically insulating material1018. Electrically insulating material 1018 may include polymers and/orone or more ceramic isolators. Section 1014 may be electrically coupledto the power supply by conductor 1002. Section 1016 may be electricallycoupled to the power supply by conductor 1002′. Electrical insulators996 may separate conductor 1002 from conductor 1002′. Electricallyinsulating material 1018 may have dimensions and insulating propertiessufficient to inhibit current from section 1014 flowing acrossinsulation material 1018 to section 1016. For example, a length ofelectrically insulating material 1018 may be about 30 meters, about 35meters, about 40 meters, or greater. Using a conduit that haselectrically conductive sections 1014, 1016 may allow fewer wellbores tobe drilled in the formation. Conduits having electrically conductivesections (“segmented heat sources”) may allow longer conduit lengths. Insome embodiments, segmented heat sources allow injection wells used fordrive processes (for example, steam assisted gravity drainage and/orcyclic steam drive processes) to be spaced further apart, and thusachieve an overall higher recovery efficiency.

Current provided through conductor 1002 may flow to conductive section1014 through hydrocarbon layer 388 to a section of ground 1010 oppositesection 1014. The electrical current may flow along ground 1010 to asection of the ground opposite section 1016. The current may flowthrough hydrocarbon layer 388 to section 1016 and through conductor1002′ back to the power circuit to complete the electrical circuit.Electrical connector 1020 may electrically couple section 1016 toconductor 1002′. Current flow is indicated by arrows 1006. Current flowthrough hydrocarbon layer 388 may heat the hydrocarbon layer to createfluid injectivity in the layer, mobilize hydrocarbons in the layer,and/or pyrolyze hydrocarbons in the layer. When using segmented heatsources, the amount of current required for the initial heating of thehydrocarbon layer may be at least 50% less than current required forheating using two non-segmented heat sources or two electrodes.Hydrocarbons may be produced from hydrocarbon layer 388 and/or othersections of the formation using production wells. In some embodiments,one or more portions of conduit 1008 is positioned in a shale layer andground 1010 is positioned in hydrocarbon layer 388. Current flow throughconductors 1002, 1002′ in opposite directions may allow for cancellationof at least a portion of the magnetic fields due to the current flow.Cancellation of at least a portion of the magnetic fields may inhibitinduction effects in the overburden portion of conduit 1008 and thewellhead of wellbore 490.

FIG. 244 depicts an embodiment in which first conduit 1008 and secondconduit 1008′ are used for heating hydrocarbon layer 388. Electricallyinsulating material 1018 may separate sections 1014, 1016 of firstconduit 1008. Electrically insulating material 1018′ may separatesections 1014′, 1016′ of second conduit 1008′.

Current may flow from a power source through conductor 1002 of firstconduit 1008 to section 1014. The current may flow through hydrocarboncontaining layer 388 to section 1016′ of second conduit 1008′. Thecurrent may return to the power source through conductor 1002′ of secondconduit 1008′. Similarly, current may flow through conductor 1002 ofsecond conduit 1008′ to section 1014′, through hydrocarbon layer 388 tosection 1016 of first conduit 1008, and the current may return to thepower source through conductor 1002′ of the first conduit 1008. Currentflow is indicated by arrows 1006. Generation of current flow fromelectrically conductive sections of conduits 1008, 1008′ may heatportions of hydrocarbon layer 388 between the conduits and create fluidinjectivity in the layer, mobilize hydrocarbons in the layer, and/orpyrolyze hydrocarbons in the layer. In some embodiments, one or moreportions of conduits 1008, 1008′ are positioned in shale layers.

By creating opposite current flow through the wellbores, as describedwith reference to FIGS. 243 and 244, magnetic fields in the overburdenmay cancel out. Cancellation of the magnetic fields in the overburdenmay allow ferromagnetic materials to be used in overburden casings 398.Using ferromagnetic casings in the wellbores may be less expensiveand/or easier to install than non-ferromagnetic casings (such asfiberglass casings).

In some embodiments, two or more conduits may branch from a commonwellbore. FIG. 245 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of two conduitsextending from one common wellbore. Extending the conduits from onecommon wellbore may reduce costs by forming fewer wellbores in theformation. Using common wellbores may allow wellbores to be spacedfurther apart and produce the same heating efficiencies and the sameheating times as drilling two different wellbores for each conduitthrough the formation. Using common wellbores may allow ferromagneticmaterials to be used in overburden casing 398 since the magnetic fieldscancel due to the approximately equal and opposite flow of current inthe overburden section of conduits 992, 994. Extending conduits from onecommon wellbore may allow longer conduits to be used.

Conduits 992, 994 may extend from common vertical portion 1022 ofwellbore 490. Conduit 994 may be installed through an opening (forexample, a milled window) in vertical portion 1022. Conduits 992, 994may extend substantially horizontally or inclined from vertical portion1022. Conduits 992, 994 may include electrically conductive material998. In some embodiments, conduits 992, 994 include electricallyconductive sections and electrically insulating material, as describedfor conduit 1008 in FIGS. 243 and 244. Conduit 992 and/or conduit 994may include openings 1000. Current may flow from a power source toconduit 992 through conductor 1002. The current may pass throughhydrocarbon containing layer 388 to conduit 994. The current may passfrom conduit 994 through conductor 1002′ back to the power source tocomplete the circuit. The flow of current as shown by arrows 1006through hydrocarbon layer 388 from conduits 992, 994 heats thehydrocarbon layer between the conduits.

In certain embodiments, electrodes (such as conduits 992, 994, conduit1008, and/or ground 1010) are coated or cladded with high electricalconductivity material to reduce energy losses. In some embodiments,overburden conductors (such as conductor 1002) are coated or claddedwith high electrical conductivity material. FIG. 246 depicts anembodiment of conduit 992 with heating zone cladding 1396 and conductor1002 with overburden cladding 1398. In certain embodiments, conduit 992is made of carbon steel. Cladding 1396 may be copper or another highlyelectrically conductive material. In certain embodiments, cladding 1396and/or cladding 1398 is coupled to conduit 992 and/or conductor 1002 bywrapping thin layers of the cladding onto the conduit or conductor. Insome embodiments, cladding 1396 and/or cladding 1398 is coupled toconduit 992 and/or conductor 1002 by depositing or coating the claddingusing electrolysis.

In certain embodiments, overburden cladding 1398 has a substantiallyconstant thickness along the length of conductor 1002 as the currentalong the conductor is substantially constant. In the hydrocarbon layerof the formation, however, electrical current flows into the formationand electrical current decreases linearly along the length of conduit992 if current injection into the formation is uniform. Since current inconduit 992 decreases along the length of the conduit, heating zonecladding 1396 can decrease in thickness linearly along with the currentwhile still reducing energy losses to acceptable levels along the lengthof the conduit. Having heating zone cladding 1396 taper to a thinnerthickness along the length of conduit 992 reduces the total cost ofputting the cladding on the conduit.

The taper of heating zone cladding 1396 may be selected to providecertain electrical output characteristics along the length of conduit992. In certain embodiments, the taper of heating zone cladding 1396 isdesigned to provide an approximately constant current density along thelength of the conduit such that the current decreases linearly along thelength of the conduit. In some embodiments, the thickness and taper ofheating zone cladding 1396 is designed such that the formation is heatedat or below a selected heating rate (for example, at or below about 160W/m). In some embodiments, the thickness and taper of heating zonecladding 1396 is designed such that a voltage gradient along thecladding is less than a selected value (for example, less than about 0.3V/m).

In certain embodiments, analytical calculations may be made to optimizethe thickness and taper of heating zone cladding 1396. The thickness andtaper of heating zone cladding 1396 may be optimized to producesubstantial cost savings over using a heating zone cladding of constantthickness. For example, it may be possible reduce costs by more than 50%by tapering heating zone cladding 1396 along the length of conduit 992.

In certain embodiments, boreholes of electrodes (such as conduits 992,994, conduit 1008, and/or ground 1010) are filled with an electricallyconductive material and/or a thermally conductive material. For example,the insides of conduits may be filled with the electrically conductivematerial and/or the thermally conductive material. In certainembodiments, the wellbores with electrodes are filled with graphite,conductive cement, or combinations thereof. Filling the wellbore withelectrically and/or thermally conductive material may increase theeffective electrical diameter of the electrode for conducting currentinto the formation and/or increase distribution of any heat generated inthe wellbore.

In some embodiments, a subsurface formation is heated using heatingsystems described in the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 242, 243, 244,and/or 245 to heat fluids in hydrocarbon layer 388 to mobilization,visbreaking, and/or pyrolyzation temperatures. Such heated fluids may beproduced from the hydrocarbon layer and/or from other sections of theformation. As the hydrocarbon layer 388 is heated, the conductivity ofthe heated portion of the hydrocarbon layer increases. For example,conductivity of hydrocarbon layers close to the surface may increase byas much as a factor of three when the temperature of the formationincreases from 20° C. to 100° C. For deeper layers, where the watervaporization temperature is higher due to increased fluid pressure, theincrease in conductivity may be greater. Greater increases inconductivity may increase the heating rate of the formation. Thus, asthe conductivity increases in the formation, increases in heating may bemore concentrated in deeper layers.

As a result of heating, the viscosity of heavy hydrocarbons in ahydrocarbon layer is reduced. Reducing the viscosity may create moreinjectivity in the layer and/or mobilize hydrocarbons in the layer. As aresult of being able to rapidly heat the hydrocarbon layer using heatingsystems described in the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 242, 243, 244,and/or 245, sufficient fluid injectivity in the hydrocarbon layer may beachieved more quickly, for example, in about two years. In someembodiments, these heating systems are used to create drainage pathsbetween the heat sources and production wells for a drive and/or amobilization process. In some embodiments, these heating systems areused to provide heat during the drive process. The amount of heatprovided by the heating systems may be small compared to the heat inputfrom the drive process (for example, the heat input from steaminjection).

Once sufficient fluid injectivity has been established, a drive fluid, apressuring fluid, and/or a solvation fluid may be injected in the heatedportion of hydrocarbon layer 388. In some embodiments (for example, theembodiments depicted in FIGS. 242 and 245), conduit 994 is perforatedand fluid is injected through the conduit to mobilize and/or furtherheat hydrocarbon layer 388. Fluids may drain and/or be mobilized towardsconduit 992. Conduit 992 may be perforated at the same time as conduit994 or perforated at the start of production. Formation fluids may beproduced through conduit 992 and/or other sections of the formation.

As shown in FIG. 247, conduit 992 is positioned in layer 1024 locatedbetween hydrocarbon layers 388A and 388B. Conduit 994 is positioned inhydrocarbon layer 388A. Conduits 992, 994, shown in FIG. 247, may be anyof conduits 992, 994, depicted in FIGS. 242 and/or 245, as well asconduits 1008, 1008′ or ground 1010, depicted in FIGS. 243 and 244. Insome embodiments, portions of conduit 992 are positioned in hydrocarbonlayers 388A or 388B and in layer 1024.

Layer 1024 may be a conductive layer, water/sand layer, or hydrocarbonlayer that has different porosity than hydrocarbon layer 388A and/orhydrocarbon layer 388B. In some embodiments, layer 1024 is a shalelayer. Layer 1024 may have conductivities ranging from about 0.2 mho/mto about 0.5 mho/m. Hydrocarbon layers 388A and/or 388B may haveconductivities ranging from about 0.02 mho/m to about 0.05 mho/m.Conductivity ratios between layer 1024 and hydrocarbon layers 388Aand/or 388B may range from about 10:1, about 20:1, or about 100:1. Whenlayer 1024 is a shale layer, heating the layer may desiccate the shalelayer and increase the permeability of the shale layer to allow fluid toflow through the shale layer. The increased permeability in the shalelayer allows mobilized hydrocarbons to flow from hydrocarbon layer 388Ato hydrocarbon layer 388B, allows drive fluids to be injected inhydrocarbon layer 388A, and/or allows steam drive processes (forexample, SAGD, cyclic steam soak (CSS), sequential CSS and SAGD or steamflood, or simultaneous SAGD and CSS) to be performed in hydrocarbonlayer 388A.

In some embodiments, a conductive layer is selected to provide lateralcontinuity of conductivity within the conductive layer and to provide asubstantially higher conductivity, for a given thickness, than thesurrounding hydrocarbon layers. Thin conductive layers selected on thisbasis may substantially confine the heat generation within and aroundthe conductive layers and allow much greater spacing between rows ofelectrodes. In some embodiments, layers to be heated are selected, onthe basis of resistivity well logs, to provide lateral continuity ofconductivity. Selection of layers to be heated is described in U.S. Pat.No. 4,926,941 to Glandt et al., which is incorporated herein byreference.

Once sufficient fluid injectivity is created, fluid may be injected inlayer 1024 through an injection well and/or conduit 992 to heat ormobilize fluids in hydrocarbon layer 388B. Fluids may be produced fromhydrocarbon layer 388B and/or other sections of the formation. In someembodiments, fluid is injected in conduit 994 to mobilize and/or heat inhydrocarbon layer 388A. Heated and/or mobilized fluids may be producedfrom conduit 992 and/or other production wells located in hydrocarbonlayer 388B and/or other sections of the formation.

In certain embodiments, a solvation fluid, in combination with apressurizing fluid, is used to treat the hydrocarbon formation inaddition to the in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments, thesolvation fluid, in combination with the pressurizing fluid, is usedafter the hydrocarbon formation has been treated using a drive process.In some embodiments, solvation fluids are foamed or made into foams toimprove the efficiency of the drive process. Since an effectiveviscosity of the foam may be greater than the viscosity of theindividual components, the use of a foaming composition may improve thesweep efficiency of the drive fluid.

In some embodiments, the solvation fluid includes a foaming composition.The foaming composition may be injected simultaneously or alternatelywith the pressurizing fluid and/or the drive fluid to form foam in theheated section. Use of foaming compositions may be more advantageousthan use of polymer solutions since foaming compositions are thermallystable at temperatures up to 600° C. while polymer compositions maydegrade at temperatures above 150° C. Use of foaming compositions attemperatures above about 150° C. may allow more hydrocarbon fluidsand/or more efficient removal of hydrocarbons from the formation ascompared to use of polymer compositions.

Foaming compositions may include, but are not limited to, surfactants.In certain embodiments, the foaming composition includes a polymer, asurfactant, an inorganic base, water, steam, and/or brine. The inorganicbase may include, but is not limited to, sodium hydroxide, potassiumhydroxide, potassium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate,sodium bicarbonate, or mixtures thereof. Polymers include polymerssoluble in water or brine such as, but not limited to, ethylene oxide orpropylene oxide polymers.

Surfactants include ionic surfactants and/or nonionic surfactants.Examples of ionic surfactants include alpha-olefinic sulfonates, alkylsodium sulfonates, and sodium alkyl benzene sulfonates. Non-ionicsurfactants include, for example, triethanolamine. Surfactants capableof forming foams include, but are not limited to, alpha-olefinicsulfonates, alkylpolyalkoxyalkylene sulfonates, aromatic sulfonates,alkyl aromatic sulfonates, alcohol ethoxy glycerol sulfonates (AEGS), ormixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of surfactants capable of beingfoamed include AGES 25-12 surfactant, sodium dodecyl 3EO sulfate, andsulfates made from branched alcohols made using the Guerbet method suchas, for example, sodium dodecyl (Guerbert) 3PO sulfate⁶³, ammoniumisotridecyl (Guerbert) 4PO sulfate⁶³, sodium tetradecyl (Guerbert) 4POsulfate⁶³. Nonionic and ionic surfactants and/or methods of use and/ormethods of foaming for treating a hydrocarbon formation are described inU.S. Pat. Nos. 4,643,256 to Dilgren et al.; 5,193,618 to Loh et al.;5,046,560 to Teletzke et al.; 5,358,045 to Sevigny et al.; 6,439,308 toWang; 7,055,602 to Shpakoff et al.; 7,137,447 to Shpakoff et al.;7,229,950 to Shpakoff et al.; and 7,262,153 to Shpakoff et al.; and byWellington et al., in “Surfactant-Induced Mobility Control for CarbonDioxide Studied with Computerized Tomography,” American Chemical SocietySymposium Series No. 373, 1988.

Foam may be formed in the formation by injecting the foaming compositionduring or after addition of steam. Pressurizing fluid (for example,carbon dioxide, methane, and/or nitrogen) may be injected in theformation before, during, or after the foaming composition is injected.A type of pressurizing fluid may be based on the surfactant used in thefoaming composition. For example, carbon dioxide may be used withalcohol ethoxy glycerol sulfonates. The pressurizing fluid and foamingcomposition may mix in the formation and produce foam. In someembodiments, non-condensable gas is mixed with the foaming compositionprior to injection to form a pre-foamed composition. The foamingcomposition, the pressurizing fluid, and/or the pre-foamed compositionmay be periodically injected in the heated formation. The foamingcomposition, pre-foamed compositions, drive fluids, and/or pressurizingfluids may be injected at a pressure sufficient to displace theformation fluids without fracturing the reservoir.

In some embodiments, electrodes may be positioned in wellbores to heathydrocarbon layers in a subsurface formation. Electrodes may bepositioned vertically in the hydrocarbon formation or orientedsubstantially horizontal or inclined. Heating hydrocarbon formationswith electrodes is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,084,637 to Todd;4,926,941 to Glandt et al.; and 5,046,559 to Glandt, all of which areincorporate herein by reference in their entirety. Electrodes used forheating hydrocarbon formations may have bare elements at the ends of theelectrodes. Heating of the hydrocarbon layers may subject the bareelement ends to increased current because of the near and far fieldvoltage fields concentrating on the ends. Coating of the electrode toform high voltage stress cones (“stress grading”) around sections of theelectrode or the entire electrode may enhance the performance of theelectrode. FIG. 248A depicts a schematic of an embodiment of anelectrode with a sleeve over a section of the electrode. FIG. 248Bdepicts a schematic of an embodiment of an uncoated electrode. FIG. 249Adepicts a schematic of another embodiment of a coated electrode. FIG.249B depicts a schematic of another embodiment of an uncoated electrode.Electrode 1020 may include a coating that forms sleeve 1026 around anend (as shown in FIG. 248A) or substantially all (as shown in FIG. 249A)of the electrode. Sleeve 1026 may be formed from a positive temperaturecoefficient polymer and/or a heat shrinkable material. When sleeve 1026is coated, as shown by arrows in FIGS. 248A and 249A, current flow isdistributed outwardly along sleeve 1026 when electrode 1020 is energizedrather than the ends or portions of the electrode, as shown in FIGS.248B and 249B.

In some embodiments, bulk resistance along sections of the electrode maybe increased by layering conductive materials and insulating layersalong a section of the electrode. Examples of such electrodes areelectrodes made by Raychem® (Tyco International Inc., Princeton, N.J.,U.S.A.). Increased bulk resistance may allow voltage along the sleeve ofthe electrode to be distributed, thus decreasing the current density atthe end of the electrode.

FIG. 250 depicts an embodiment of a u-shaped heater that has aninductively energized tubular. Heater 412 includes electrical conductor408 and tubular 578 in an opening that spans between wellbore 490A andwellbore 490B. In certain embodiments, electrical conductor 408 and/orthe current carrying portion of the electrical conductor is electricallyinsulated from tubular 578. Electrical conductor 408 and/or the currentcarrying portion of the electrical conductor is electrically insulatedfrom tubular 578 such that electrical current does not flow from theelectrical conductor to the tubular, or vice versa (for example, thetubular is not electrically connected to the electrical conductor).

In some embodiments, electrical conductor 408 is centralized insidetubular 578 (for example, using centralizers 390 or other supportstructures, as shown in FIG. 251). Centralizers 390 may electricallyinsulate electrical conductor 408 from tubular 578. In some embodiments,tubular 578 contacts electrical conductor 408. For example, tubular 578may hang, drape, or otherwise touch electrical conductor 408. In someembodiments, electrical conductor 408 includes electrical insulation(for example, magnesium oxide or porcelain enamel) that insulates thecurrent carrying portion of the electrical conductor from tubular 578.The electrical insulation inhibits current from flowing between thecurrent carrying portion of electrical conductor 408 and tubular 578 ifthe electrical conductor and the tubular are in physical contact witheach other.

In some embodiments, electrical conductor 408 is an exposed metalconductor heater or a conductor-in-conduit heater. In certainembodiments, electrical conductor 408 is an insulated conductor such asa mineral insulated conductor. The insulated conductor may have a coppercore, copper alloy core, or a similar electrically conductive, lowresistance core that has low electrical losses. In some embodiments, thecore is a copper core with a diameter between about 0.5″ (1.27 cm) andabout 1″ (2.54 cm). The sheath or jacket of the insulated conductor maybe a non-ferromagnetic, corrosion resistant steel such as 347 stainlesssteel, 625 stainless steel, 825 stainless steel, 304 stainless steel, orcopper with a protective layer (for example, a protective cladding). Thesheath may have an outer diameter of between about 1″ (2.54 cm) andabout 1.25″ (3.18 cm).

In some embodiments, the sheath or jacket of the insulated conductor isin physical contact with the tubular 578 (for example, the tubular is inphysical contact with the sheath along the length of the tubular) or thesheath is electrically connected to the tubular. In such embodiments,the electrical insulation of the insulated conductor electricallyinsulates the core of the insulated conductor from the jacket and thetubular. FIG. 252 depicts an embodiment of an induction heater with thesheath of an insulated conductor in electrical contact with tubular 578.Electrical conductor 408 is the insulated conductor. The sheath of theinsulated conductor is electrically connected to tubular 578 usingelectrical contactors 1400. In some embodiments, electrical contactors1400 are sliding contactors. In certain embodiments, electricalcontactors 1400 electrically connect the sheath of the insulatedconductor to tubular 578 at or near the ends of the tubular.Electrically connecting at or near the ends of tubular 578 substantiallyequalizes the voltage along the tubular with the voltage along thesheath of the insulated conductor. Equalizing the voltages along tubular578 and along the sheath may inhibit arcing between the tubular and thesheath.

Tubular 578, shown in FIGS. 250, 251, and 252, may be ferromagnetic orinclude ferromagnetic materials. Tubular 578 may have a thickness suchthat when electrical conductor 408 is energized with time-varyingcurrent, the electrical conductor induces electrical current flow on thesurfaces of tubular 578 due to the ferromagnetic properties of thetubular (for example, current flow is induced on both the inside of thetubular and the outside of the tubular). Current flow is induced in theskin depth of the surfaces of tubular 578 so that the tubular operatesas a skin effect heater. In certain embodiments, the induced currentcirculates axially (longitudinally) on the inside and/or outsidesurfaces of tubular 578. Longitudinal flow of current through electricalconductor 408 induces primarily longitudinal current flow in tubular 578(the majority of the induced current flow is in the longitudinaldirection in the tubular). Having primarily longitudinal induced currentflow in tubular 578 may provide a higher resistance per foot than if theinduced current flow is primarily angular current flow.

In certain embodiments, current flow in tubular 578 is induced with lowfrequency current in electrical conductor 408 (for example, from 50 Hzor 60 Hz up to about 1000 Hz). In some embodiments, induced currents onthe inside and outside surfaces of tubular 578 are substantially equal.

In certain embodiments, tubular 578 has a thickness that is greater thanthe skin depth of the ferromagnetic material in the tubular at or nearthe Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic material or at or near thephase transformation temperature of the ferromagnetic material. Forexample, tubular 578 may have a thickness of at least 2.1, at least 2.5times, at least 3 times, or at least 4 times the skin depth of theferromagnetic material in the tubular near the Curie temperature or thephase transformation temperature of the ferromagnetic material. Incertain embodiments, tubular 578 has a thickness of at least 2.1 times,at least 2.5 times, at least 3 times, or at least 4 times the skin depthof the ferromagnetic material in the tubular at about 50° C. below theCurie temperature or the phase transformation temperature of theferromagnetic material.

In certain embodiments, tubular 578 is carbon steel. In someembodiments, tubular 578 is coated with a corrosion resistant coating(for example, porcelain or ceramic coating) and/or an electricallyinsulating coating. In some embodiments, electrical conductor 408 has anelectrically insulating coating. Examples of the electrically insulatingcoating on tubular 578 and/or electrical conductor 408 include, but arenot limited to, a porcelain enamel coating, alumina coating, oralumina-titania coating. In some embodiments, tubular 578 and/orelectrical conductor 408 are coated with a coating such as polyethyleneor another suitable low friction coefficient coating that may melt ordecompose when the heater is energized. The coating may facilitateplacement of the tubular and/or the electrical conductor in theformation.

In some embodiments, tubular 578 includes corrosion resistantferromagnetic material such as, but not limited to, 410 stainless steel,446 stainless steel, T/P91 stainless steel, T/P92 stainless steel, alloy52, alloy 42, and Invar 36. In some embodiments, tubular 578 is astainless steel tubular with cobalt added (for example, between about 3%by weight and about 10% by weight cobalt added) and/or molybdenum (forexample, about 0.5% molybdenum by weight).

At or near the Curie temperature or the phase transformation temperatureof the ferromagnetic material in tubular 578, the magnetic permeabilityof the ferromagnetic material decreases rapidly. When the magneticpermeability of tubular 578 decreases at or near the Curie temperatureor the phase transformation temperature, there is little or no currentflow in the tubular because, at these temperatures, the tubular isessentially non-ferromagnetic and electrical conductor 408 is unable toinduce current flow in the tubular. With little or no current flow intubular 578, the temperature of the tubular will drop to lowertemperatures until the magnetic permeability increases and the tubularbecomes ferromagnetic. Thus, tubular 578 self-limits at or near theCurie temperature or the phase transformation temperature and operatesas a temperature limited heater due to the ferromagnetic properties ofthe ferromagnetic material in the tubular. Because current is induced intubular 578, the turndown ratio may be higher and the drop in currentsharper for the tubular than for temperature limited heaters that applycurrent directly to the ferromagnetic material. For example, heaterswith current induced in tubular 578 may have turndown ratios of at leastabout 5, at least about 10, or at least about 20 while temperaturelimited heaters that apply current directly to the ferromagneticmaterial may have turndown ratios that are at most about 5.

When current is induced in tubular 578, the tubular provides heat tohydrocarbon layer 388 and defines the heating zone in the hydrocarbonlayer. In certain embodiments, tubular 578 heats to temperatures of atleast about 300° C., at least about 500° C., or at least about 700° C.Because current is induced on both the inside and outside surfaces oftubular 578, the heat generation of the tubular is increased as comparedto temperature limited heaters that have current directly applied to theferromagnetic material and current flow is limited to one surface. Thus,less current may be provided to electrical conductor 408 to generate thesame heat as heaters that apply current directly to the ferromagneticmaterial. Using less current in electrical conductor 408 decreases powerconsumption and reduces power losses in the overburden of the formation.

In certain embodiments, tubulars 578 have large diameters. The largediameters may be used to equalize or substantially equalize highpressures on the tubular from either the inside or the outside of thetubular. In some embodiments, tubular 578 has a diameter in a rangebetween about 1.5″ (about 3.8 cm) and about 5″ (about 12.7 cm). In someembodiments, tubular 578 has a diameter in a range between about 3 cmand about 13 cm, between about 4 cm and about 12 cm, or between about 5cm and about 11 cm. Increasing the diameter of tubular 578 may providemore heat output to the formation by increasing the heat transfersurface area of the tubular.

In some embodiments, fluids flow through the annulus of tubular 578 orthrough another conduit inside the tubular. The fluids may be used, forexample, to cool down the heater, to recover heat from the heater,and/or to initially heat the formation before energizing the heater.

In some embodiments, a method for heating a hydrocarbon containingformation may include providing a time-varying electrical current at afirst frequency to an elongated electrical conductor located in theformation using an inductive heater. Electrical current flow may beinduced in a ferromagnetic conductor with the time-varying electricalcurrent at the first frequency. In some embodiments, the ferromagneticconductor may at least partially surround and at least partially extendlengthwise around the electrical conductor. The ferromagnetic conductormay be resistively heated with the induced electrical current flow. Forexample, the ferromagnetic conductor may be resistively heated with theinduced electrical current flow such that the ferromagnetic conductorresistively heats up to a first temperature. The first temperature maybe at most about 300° C. Heat may be allowed to transfer from theferromagnetic conductor at the first temperature to at least a part ofthe formation. At least some water in the formation may be vaporizedwith the ferromagnetic conductor at the first temperature. At theselower temperatures (for example, up to about 260° C. or about 300° C.)coke may be inhibited from forming without inducing heater damage.

In some embodiments, the time-varying electrical current may be providedat a second frequency to the elongated electrical conductor. Electricalcurrent flow may be induced in the ferromagnetic conductor with thetime-varying electrical current at the second frequency. Theferromagnetic conductor may be resistively heated with the inducedelectrical current flow. For example, the ferromagnetic conductor may beresistively heated with the induced electrical current flow such thatthe ferromagnetic conductor resistively heats up to a secondtemperature. The second temperature may be above about 300° C. Heat maybe allowed to transfer from the ferromagnetic conductor at the secondtemperature to at least a part of the formation. At least somehydrocarbons in the part of the formation may be mobilized with theferromagnetic conductor at the second temperature. Caution must be takenwith the second frequency, in that it must not be raised too high or theinductive heater may be damaged. In some embodiments, a multiplefrequency low temperature inductive heater may be provided by Siemens AG(Munich, Germany).

Many different types of wells or wellbores may be used to treat thehydrocarbon containing formation using the in situ heat treatmentprocess. In some embodiments, vertical and/or substantially verticalwells are used to treat the formation. In some embodiments, horizontal(such as J-shaped wells and/or L-shaped wells), and/or u-shaped wellsare used to treat the formation. In some embodiments, combinations ofhorizontal wells, vertical wells, and/or other combinations are used totreat the formation. In certain embodiments, wells extend through theoverburden of the formation to a hydrocarbon containing layer of theformation. Heat in the wells may be lost to the overburden. In certainembodiments, surface and/or overburden infrastructures used to supportheaters and/or production equipment in horizontal wellbores and/oru-shaped wellbores are large in size and/or numerous.

In certain embodiments, heaters, heater power sources, productionequipment, supply lines, and/or other heater or production supportequipment are positioned in tunnels to enable smaller sized heatersand/or smaller sized equipment to be used to treat the formation.Positioning such equipment and/or structures in tunnels may also reduceenergy costs for treating the formation, reduce emissions from thetreatment process, facilitate heating system installation, and/or reduceheat loss to the overburden as compared to hydrocarbon recoveryprocesses that utilize surface based equipment. The tunnels may be, forexample, substantially horizontal tunnels and/or inclined tunnels. U.S.Published Patent Application Nos. 2007/0044957 to Watson et al.;2008/0017416 to Watson et al.; and 2008/0078552 to Donnelly et al.describe methods of drilling from a shaft for underground recovery ofhydrocarbons and methods of underground recovery of hydrocarbons.

In certain embodiments, tunnels and/or shafts are used in combinationwith wells to treat the hydrocarbon containing formation using the insitu heat treatment process. FIG. 253 depicts a perspective view ofunderground treatment system 1028. Underground treatment system 1028 maybe used to treat hydrocarbon layer 388 using the in situ heat treatmentprocess. In certain embodiments, underground treatment system 1028includes shafts 1030, utility shafts 1032, tunnels 1034A, tunnels 1034B,and wellbores 490. Tunnels 1034A, 1034B may be located in overburden400, an underburden, a non-hydrocarbon containing layer, or a lowhydrocarbon content layer of the formation. In some embodiments, tunnels1034A, 1034B are located in a rock layer of the formation. In someembodiments, tunnels 1034A, 1034B are located in an impermeable portionof the formation. For example, tunnels 1034A, 1034B may be located in aportion of the formation having a permeability of at most about 1millidarcy.

Shafts 1030 and/or utility shafts 1032 may be formed and strengthened(for example, supported to inhibit collapse) using methods known in theart. For example, shafts 1030 and/or utility shafts 1032 may be formedusing blind and raised bore drilling technologies using mud weight andlining to support the shafts. Conventional techniques may be used toraise and lower equipment in the shafts and/or to provide utilitiesthrough the shafts.

Tunnels 1034A, 1034B may be formed and strengthened (for example,supported to inhibit collapse) using methods known in the art. Forexample, tunnels 1034A, 1034B may be formed using road-headers, drilland blast, tunnel boring machine, and/or continuous miner technologiesto form the tunnels. Tunnel strengthening may be provided by, forexample, roof support, mesh, and/or shot-crete. Tunnel strengthening mayinhibit tunnel collapse and/or to inhibit movement of the tunnels duringheat treatment of the formation.

In certain embodiments, the status of tunnels 1034A, tunnels 1034B,shafts 1030, and/or utility shafts 1032 are monitored for changes instructure or integrity of the tunnels or shafts. For example,conventional mine survey technologies may be used to continuouslymonitor the structure and integrity of the tunnels and/or shafts. Inaddition, systems may be used to monitor changes in characteristics ofthe formation that may affect the structure and/or integrity of thetunnels or shafts.

In certain embodiments, tunnels 1034A, 1034B are substantiallyhorizontal or inclined in the formation. In some embodiments, tunnels1034A extend along the line of shafts 1030 and utility shafts 1032.Tunnels 1034B may connect between tunnels 1034A. In some embodiments,tunnels 1034B allow cross-access between tunnels 1034A. In someembodiments, tunnels 1034B are used to cross-connect production betweentunnels 1034A below the surface of the formation.

Tunnels 1034A, 1034B may have cross-section shapes that are rectangular,circular, elliptical, horseshoe-shaped, irregular-shaped, orcombinations thereof. Tunnels 1034A, 1034B may have cross-sections largeenough for personnel, equipment, and/or vehicles to pass through thetunnels. In some embodiments, tunnels 1034A, 1034B have cross-sectionslarge enough to allow personnel and/or vehicles to freely pass byequipment located in the tunnels. In some embodiments, the tunnelsdescribed in embodiments herein have an average diameter of at least 1m, at least 2 m, at least 5 m, or at least 10 m.

In certain embodiments, shafts 1030 and/or utility shafts 1032 connectwith tunnels 1034A in overburden 400. In some embodiments, shafts 1030and/or utility shafts 1032 connect with tunnels 1034A in another layerof the formation. Shafts 1030 and/or utility shafts 1032 may be sunk orformed using methods known in the art for drilling and/or sinking mineshafts. In certain embodiments, shafts 1030 and/or utility shafts 1032connect with tunnels 1034A in overburden 400 and/or hydrocarbon layer388 to surface 404. In some embodiments, shafts 1030 and/or utilityshafts 1032 extend into hydrocarbon layer 388. For example, shafts 1030may include production conduits and/or other production equipment toproduce fluids from hydrocarbon layer 388 to surface 404.

In certain embodiments, shafts 1030 and/or utility shafts 1032 aresubstantially vertical or slightly angled from vertical. In certainembodiments, shafts 1030 and/or utility shafts 1032 have cross-sectionslarge enough for personnel, equipment, and/or vehicles to pass throughthe shafts. In some embodiments, shafts 1030 and/or utility shafts 1032have circular cross-sections. Shafts 1030 and/or utility shafts 1032 mayhave an average cross-sectional diameter of at least 0.5 m, at least 1m, at least 2 m, at least 5 m, or at least 10 m.

In certain embodiments, the distance between two shafts 1030 is between500 m and 5000 m, between 1000 m and 4000 m, or between 2000 m and 3000m. In certain embodiments, the distance between two utility shafts 1032is between 100 m and 1000 m, between 250 m and 750 m, or between 400 mand 600 m.

In certain embodiments, shafts 1030 are larger in cross-section thanutility shafts 1032. Shafts 1030 may allow access to tunnels 1034A forlarge ventilation, materials, equipment, vehicles, and personnel.Utility shafts 1032 may provide service corridor access to tunnels 1034Afor equipment or structures such as, but not limited to, power supplylegs, production risers, and/or ventilation openings. In someembodiments, shafts 1030 and/or utility shafts 1032 include monitoringand/or sealing systems to monitor and assess gas levels in the shaftsand to seal off the shafts if needed.

FIG. 254 depicts an exploded perspective view of a portion ofunderground treatment system 1028 and tunnels 1034A. In certainembodiments, tunnels 1034A include heater tunnels 1036 and/or utilitytunnels 1038. In some embodiments, tunnels 1034A include additionaltunnels such as access tunnels and/or service tunnels. FIG. 255 depictsan exploded perspective view of a portion of underground treatmentsystem 1028 and tunnels 1034A. Tunnels 1034A, as shown in FIG. 255, mayinclude heater tunnels 1036, utility tunnels 1038, and/or access tunnels1040.

In certain embodiments, as shown in FIG. 254, wellbores 490 extend fromheater tunnels 1036. Wellbores 490 may include, but not be limited to,heater wells, heat source wells, production wells, injection wells (forexample, steam injection wells), and/or monitoring wells. Heaters and/orheat sources that may be located in wellbores 490 include, but are notlimited to, electric heaters, oxidation heaters (gas burners), heaterscirculating a heat transfer fluid, closed looped molten salt circulatingsystems, pulverized coal systems, and/or joule heat sources (heating ofthe formation using electrical current flow between heat sources havingelectrically conducting material in two wellbores in the formation). Thewellbores used for joule heat sources may extend from the same tunnel(for example, substantially parallel wellbores extending between twotunnels with electrical current flowing between the wellbores) or fromdifferent tunnels (for example, wellbores extending from two differenttunnels that are spaced to allow electrical current flow between thewellbores).

Heating the formation with heat sources having electrically conductingmaterial may increase permeability in the formation and/or lowerviscosity of hydrocarbons in the formation. Heat sources withelectrically conducting material may allow current to flow through theformation from one heat source to another heat source. Heating usingcurrent flow or “joule heating” through the formation may heat portionsof the hydrocarbon layer in a shorter amount of time relative to heatingthe hydrocarbon layer using conductive heating between heaters spacedapart in the formation.

In certain embodiments, subsurface formations (for example, tar sands orheavy hydrocarbon formations) include dielectric media. Dielectric mediamay exhibit conductivity, relative dielectric constant, and losstangents at temperatures below 100° C. Loss of conductivity, relativedielectric constant, and dissipation factor may occur as the formationis heated to temperatures above 100° C. due to the loss of moisturecontained in the interstitial spaces in the rock matrix of theformation. To prevent loss of moisture, formations may be heated attemperatures and pressures that minimize vaporization of water. In someembodiments, conductive solutions are added to the formation to helpmaintain the electrical properties of the formation. Heating theformation at low temperatures may require the hydrocarbon layer to beheated for long periods of time to produce permeability and/orinjectivity.

In some embodiments, formations are heated using joule heating totemperatures and pressures that vaporize the water and/or conductivesolutions. Material used to produce the current flow, however, maybecome damaged due to heat stress and/or loss of conductive solutionsmay limit heat transfer in the layer. In addition, when using currentflow or joule heating, magnetic fields may form. Due to the presence ofmagnetic fields, non-ferromagnetic materials may be desired foroverburden casings. Although many methods have been described forheating formations using joule heating, efficient and economic methodsof heating and producing hydrocarbons using heat sources withelectrically conductive material are needed.

In some embodiments, heat sources that include electrically conductivematerials are positioned in the hydrocarbon layer. Electricallyresistive portions of the hydrocarbon layer may be heated by electricalcurrent that flows from the heat sources and through the layer.Positioning of electrically conductive heat sources in the hydrocarbonlayer at depths sufficient to minimize loss of conductive solutions mayallow hydrocarbons layers to be heated at relatively high temperaturesover a period of time with minimal loss of water and/or conductivesolutions.

Introduction of heat sources into hydrocarbon layer 388 through heatertunnels 1036 allows the hydrocarbon layer to be heated withoutsignificant heat losses to overburden 400. Being able to provide heatmainly to hydrocarbon layer 388 with low heat losses in the overburdenmay enhance heater efficiency. Using tunnels to provide heater sectionsonly in the hydrocarbon layer, and not requiring heater wellboresections in the overburden, may decrease heater costs by at least 30%,at least 50%, at least 60%, or at least 70% as compared to heater costsusing heaters that have sections passing through the overburden.

In some embodiments, providing heaters through tunnels allows higherheat source densities in the hydrocarbon layer 388 to be obtained.Higher heat source densities may result in faster production ofhydrocarbons from the formation. Closer spacing of heaters may beeconomically beneficial due to a significantly lower cost per additionalheater. For example, heaters located in the hydrocarbon layer of a tarsands formation by drilling through the overburden are typically spacedabout 12 m apart. Installing heaters from tunnels may allow heaters tobe spaced about 8 m apart in the hydrocarbon layer. The closer spacingmay accelerate first production to about 2 years as compared to the 5years for first production obtained from heaters that are spaced 12 mapart and accelerate completion of production to about 5 years fromabout 8 years. This acceleration in first production may reduce theheating requirement 5% or more.

In certain embodiments, subsurface connections for heaters or heatsources are made in heater tunnels 1036. Connections that are made inheater tunnels 1036 include, but are not limited to, insulatedelectrical connections, physical support connections, andinstrumental/diagnostic connections. For example, electrical connectionmay be made between electric heater elements and bus bars located inheater tunnels 1036. The bus bars may be used to provide electricalconnection to the ends of the heater elements. In certain embodiments,connections made in heater tunnels 1036 are made at a certain safetylevel. For example, the connections are made such that there is littleor no explosion risk (or other potential hazards) in the heater tunnelsbecause of gases from the heat sources or the heat source wellbores thatmay migrate to heater tunnels 1036. In some embodiments, heater tunnels1036 are ventilated to the surface or another area to lower theexplosion risk in the heater tunnels. For example, heater tunnels 1036may be vented through utility shafts 1032.

In certain embodiments, heater connections are made between heatertunnels 1036 and utility tunnels 1038. For example, electricalconnections for electric heaters extending from heater tunnels 1036 mayextend through the heater tunnels into utility tunnels 1038. Theseconnections may be substantially sealed such that there is little or noleaking between the tunnels either through or around the connections.

In certain embodiments, utility tunnels 1038 include power equipment orother equipment necessary to operate heat sources and/or productionequipment. In certain embodiments, transformers 1042 and voltageregulators 1044 are located in utility tunnels 1038. Locatingtransformers 1042 and voltage regulators 1044 in the subsurface allowshigh-voltages to be transported directly into the overburden of theformation to increase the efficiency of providing power to heaters inthe formation.

Transformers 1042 may be, for example, gas insulated, water cooledtransformers such as SF₆ gas-insulated power transformers available fromToshiba Corporation (Tokyo, Japan). Such transformers may be highefficiency transformers. These transformers may be used to provideelectricity to multiple heaters in the formation. The higher efficiencyof these transformers reduces water cooling requirements for thetransformers. Reducing the water cooling requirements of thetransformers allows the transformers to be placed in small chamberswithout the need for extra cooling to keep the transformers fromoverheating. Water cooling instead of air cooling allows more heat pervolume of cooling fluid to be transported to the surface versus aircooling. Using gas-insulated transformers may eliminate the use offlammable oils that may be hazardous in the underground environment.

In some embodiments, voltage regulators 238 are distribution typevoltage regulators to control the voltage distributed to heat sources inthe tunnels. In some embodiments, transformers 236 are used with loadtap changers to control the voltage distributed to heat sources in thetunnels. In some embodiments, variable voltage, load tap changingtransformers located in utility tunnels 232 are used to distributeelectrical power to, and control the voltage of, heat sources in thetunnels. Transformers 236, voltage regulators 238, load tap changers1042, and/or variable voltage, load tap changing transformers maycontrol the voltage distributed to either groups or banks of heatsources in the tunnels or individual heat sources. Controlling thevoltage distributed to a group of heat sources provides block controlfor the group of heat sources. Controlling the voltage distributed toindividual heat sources provides individual heat source control.

In some embodiments, transformers 1042 and/or voltage regulators 1044are located in side chambers of utility tunnels 1038. Locatingtransformers 1042 and/or voltage regulators 1044 in side chambers movesthe transformers and/or voltage regulators out of the way of personnel,equipment, and/or vehicles moving through utility tunnels 1038. Supplylines (for example, supply lines 204 depicted in FIG. 261) in utilityshaft 1032 may supply power to voltage regulators 1044 and transformers1042 in utility tunnels 1038.

In some embodiments, such as shown in FIG. 254, voltage regulators 1044are located in power chambers 1046. Power chambers 1046 may connect toutility tunnels 1038 or be side chambers of the utility tunnels. Powermay be brought into power chambers 1046 through utility shafts 1032. Useof power chambers 1046 may allow easier, quicker, and/or more effectivemaintenance, repair, and/or replacement of the connections made to heatsources in the subsurface.

In certain embodiments, sections of heater tunnels 1036 and utilitytunnels 1038 are interconnected by connecting tunnels 1048. Connectingtunnels 1048 may allow access between heater tunnels 1036 and utilitytunnels 1038. Connecting tunnels 1048 may include airlocks or otherstructures to provide a seal that can be opened and closed betweenheater tunnels 1036 and utility tunnels 1038.

In some embodiments, heater tunnels 1036 include pipelines 208 or otherconduits. In some embodiments, pipelines 208 are used to produce fluids(for example, formation fluids such as hydrocarbon fluids) fromproduction wells or heater wells coupled to heater tunnels 1036. In someembodiments, pipelines 208 are used to provide fluids used in productionwells or heater wells (for example, heat transfer fluids for circulatingfluid heaters or gas for gas burners). Pumps and associated equipment1050 for pipelines 208 may be located in pipeline chambers 1052 or otherside chambers of the tunnels. In some embodiments, pipeline chambers1052 are isolated (sealed off) from heater tunnels 1038. Fluids may beprovided to and/or removed from pipeline chambers 1052 using risersand/or pumps located in utility shafts 1032.

In some embodiments, heat sources are used in wellbores 490 proximateheater tunnels 1036 to control viscosity of formation fluids beingproduced from the formation. The heat sources may have various lengthsand/or provide different amounts of heat at different locations in theformation. In some embodiments, the heat sources are located inwellbores 490 used for producing fluids from the formation (for example,production wells).

As shown in FIG. 253, wellbores 490 may extend between tunnels 1034A inhydrocarbon layer 388. Tunnels 1034A may include one or more of heatertunnels 1036, utility tunnels 1038, and/or access tunnels 1040. In someembodiments, access tunnels 1040 are used as ventilation tunnels. Itshould be understood that the any number of tunnels and/or any order oftunnels may be used as contemplated or desired.

In some embodiments, heated fluid may flow through wellbores 490 or heatsources that extend between tunnels 1034A. For example, heated fluid mayflow between a first heater tunnel and a second heater tunnel. Thesecond tunnel may include a production system that is capable ofremoving the heated fluids from the formation to the surface of theformation. In some embodiments, the second tunnel includes equipmentthat collects heated fluids from at least two wellbores. In someembodiments, the heated fluids are moved to the surface using a liftsystem. The lift system may be located in utility shaft 1032 or aseparate production wellbore.

Production well lift systems may be used to efficiently transportformation fluid from the bottom of the production wells to the surface.Production well lift systems may provide and maintain the maximumrequired well drawdown (minimum reservoir producing pressure) andproducing rates. The production well lift systems may operateefficiently over a wide range of high temperature/multiphase fluids(gas/vapor/steam/water/hydrocarbon liquids) and production ratesexpected during the life of a typical project. Production well liftsystems may include dual concentric rod pump lift systems, chamber liftsystems and other types of lift systems.

FIG. 256 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment for flowingheated fluid in heat sources 202 between tunnels 1034A. FIG. 257 depictsa top view representation of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 256.Circulation system 706 may circulate heated fluid (for example, moltensalt) through heat sources 202. Shafts 1032 and tunnels 1034A may beused to provide the heated fluid to the heat sources and return theheated fluid from the heat sources. Large diameter piping may be used inshafts 1032 and tunnels 1034A. Large diameter piping may minimizepressure drops in transporting the heated fluid through the overburdenof the formation. Piping in shafts 1032 and tunnels 1034A may beinsulated to inhibit heat losses in the overburden.

FIG. 258 depicts another perspective view of an embodiment ofunderground treatment system 1028 with wellbores 490 extending betweentunnels 1034A. Heat sources or heaters may be located in wellbores 490.In certain embodiments, wellbores 490 extend from wellbore chambers1054. Wellbore chambers 1054 may be connected to the sides of tunnels1034A or be side chambers of the tunnels.

FIG. 259 depicts a top view of an embodiment of tunnel 1034A withwellbore chambers 1054. In certain embodiments, power chambers 1046 areconnected to utility tunnel 1038. Transformers 1042 and/or other powerequipment may be located in power chambers 1046.

In certain embodiments, tunnel 1034A includes heater tunnel 1036 andutility tunnel 1038. Heater tunnel 1036 may be connected to utilitytunnel 1038 with connecting tunnel 1048. Wellbore chambers 1054 areconnected to heater tunnel 1036. In certain embodiments, wellborechambers 1054 include heater wellbore chambers 1054A and adjunctwellbore chambers 1054B. Heat sources 202 (for example, heaters) mayextend from heater wellbore chambers 1054A. Heat sources 202 may belocated in wellbores extending from heater wellbore chambers 1054A.

In certain embodiments, heater wellbore chambers 1054A have angled sidewalls with respect to heater tunnel 1036 to allow heat sources to beinstalled into the chambers more easily. The heaters may have limitedbending capability and the angled walls may allow the heaters to beinstalled into the chambers without overbending the heaters.

In certain embodiments, barrier 1056 seals off heater wellbore chambers1054A from heater tunnel 1036. Barrier 1056 may be a fire and/or blastresistant barrier (for example, a concrete wall). In some embodiments,barrier 1056 includes an access port (for example, an access door) toallow entry into the chambers. In some embodiments, heater wellborechambers 1054A are sealed off from heater tunnel 1036 after heat sources202 have been installed. Utility shaft 1032 may provide ventilation intoheater wellbore chambers 1054A. In some embodiments, utility shaft 1032is used to provide a fire or blast suppression fluid into heaterwellbore chambers 1054A.

In certain embodiments, adjunct wellbores 490A extend from adjunctwellbore chambers 1054B. Adjunct wellbores 490A may include wellboresused as, for example, infill wellbores (repair wellbores) orintervention wellbores for killing leaks and/or monitoring wellbores.Barrier 1056 may seal off adjunct wellbore chambers 1054B from heatertunnel 1036. In some embodiments, heater wellbore chambers 1054A and/oradjunct wellbore chambers 1054B are cemented in (the chambers are filledwith cement). Filling the chambers with cement substantially seals offthe chambers from inflow or outflow of fluids.

As shown in FIGS. 253 and 258, wellbores 490 may be formed betweentunnels 1034A. Wellbores 490 may be formed substantially vertically,substantially horizontally, or inclined in hydrocarbon layer 388 bydrilling into the hydrocarbon layer from tunnels 1034A. Wellbores 490may be formed using drilling techniques known in the art. For example,wellbores 490 may be formed by pneumatic drilling using coiled tubingavailable from Penguin Automated Systems (Naughton, Ontario, Canada).

Drilling wellbores 490 from tunnels 1034A may increase drillingefficiency and decrease drilling time and allow for longer wellboresbecause the wellbores do not have to be drilled through overburden 400.Tunnels 1034A may allow large surface footprint equipment to be placedin the subsurface instead of at the surface. Drilling from tunnels 1034Aand subsequent placement of equipment and/or connections in the tunnelsmay reduce a surface footprint as compared to conventional surfacedrilling methods that use surface based equipment and connections.

Using shafts and tunnels in combination with the in situ heat treatmentprocess for treating the hydrocarbon containing formation may bebeneficial because the overburden section is eliminated from wellboreconstruction, heater construction, and/or drilling requirements. In someembodiments, at least a portion of the shafts and tunnels are locatedbelow aquifers in or above the hydrocarbon containing formation.Locating the shafts and tunnels below the aquifers may reducecontamination risk to the aquifers, and/or may simplify abandonment ofthe shafts and tunnels after treatment of the formation.

In certain embodiments, underground treatment system 1028 (depicted inFIGS. 253, 254, 258, 262, and 261) includes one or more seals to sealthe tunnels and shafts from the formation pressure and formation fluids.For example, the underground treatment system may include one or moreimpermeable barriers to seal personnel workspace from the formation. Insome embodiments, wellbores are sealed off with impermeable barriers tothe tunnels and shafts to inhibit fluids from entering the tunnels andshafts from the wellbores. In some embodiments, the impermeable barriersinclude cement or other packing materials. In some embodiments, theseals include valves or valve systems, airlocks, or other sealingsystems known in the art. The underground treatment system may includeat least one entry/exit point to the surface for access by personnel,vehicles, and/or equipment.

FIG. 260 depicts a top view of an embodiment of development of tunnel1034A. Heater tunnel 1036 may include heat source section 1058,connecting section 1060, and/or drilling section 1062 as the heatertunnel is being formed left to right. From heat source section 1058,wellbores 490 have been formed and heat sources have been introducedinto the wellbores. In some embodiments, heat source section 1058 isconsidered a hazardous confined space. Heat source section 1058 may beisolated from other sections in heater tunnel 1036 and/or utility tunnel1038 with material impermeable to hydrocarbon gases and/or hydrogensulfide. For example, cement or another impermeable material may be usedto seal off heat source section 1058 from heater tunnel 1036 and/orutility tunnel 1038. In some embodiments, impermeable material is usedto seal off heat source section 1058 from the heated portion of theformation to inhibit formation fluids or other hazardous fluids fromentering the heat source section. In some embodiments, at least 30 m, atleast 40 m, or at least 50 m of wellbore is between the heat sources andheater tunnel 1036. In some embodiments, shaft 1030 proximate to heatertunnel 1036 is sealed (for example, filled with cement) after heatinghas been initiated in the hydrocarbon layer to inhibit gas or otherfluids from entering the shaft.

In some embodiments, heaters controls may be located in utility tunnel1038. In some embodiments, utility tunnel 1038 includes electricalconnections, combustors, tanks, and/or pumps necessary to supportheaters and/or heat transport systems. For example, transformers 1042may be located in utility tunnel 1038.

Connecting section 1060 may be located after heat source section 1058.Connecting section 1060 may include space for performing operationsnecessary for installing the heat sources and/or connecting heat sources(for example, making electrical connections to the heaters). In someembodiments, connections and/or movement of equipment in connectingsection 1060 is automated using robotics or other automation techniques.Drilling section 1062 may be located after connecting section 1060.Additional wellbores may be dug and/or the tunnel may be extended indrilling section 1062.

In certain embodiments, operations in heat source section 1058,connecting section 1060, and/or drilling section 1062 are independent ofeach other. Heat source section 1058, connecting section 1060, and/orproduction section 1062 may have dedicated ventilation systems and/orconnections to utility tunnel 1038. Connecting tunnels 1048 may allowaccess and egress to heat source section 1058, connecting section 1060,and/or drilling section 1062.

In certain embodiments, connecting tunnels 1048 include airlocks 1064and/or other barriers. Airlocks 1064 may help regulate the relativepressures such that the pressure in heat source section 1058 is lessthan the air pressure in connecting section 1060, which is less than theair pressure in drilling section 1062. Air flow may move into heatsource section 1058 (the most hazardous area) to reduce the probabilityof a flammable atmosphere in utility tunnel 1038, connecting section1060, and/or drilling section 1062. Airlocks 1064 may include suitablegas detection and alarms to ensure transformers or other electricalequipment are de-energized in the event that an unsafe flammable limitis encountered in the utility tunnel 1038 (for example, less thanone-half of the lower flammable limit). Automated controls may be usedto operate airlocks 1064 and/or the other barriers. Airlocks 1064 may beoperated to allow personnel controlled access and/or egress duringnormal operations and/or emergency situations.

In certain embodiments, heat sources located in wellbores extending fromtunnels are used to heat the hydrocarbon layer. The heat from the heatsources may mobilize hydrocarbons in the hydrocarbon layer and themobilized hydrocarbons flow towards production wells. Production wellsmay be positioned in the hydrocarbon layer below, adjacent, or above theheat sources to produce the mobilized fluids. In some embodiments,formation fluids may gravity drain into tunnels located in thehydrocarbon layer. Production systems may be installed in the tunnels(for example, pipeline 208 depicted in FIG. 254). The tunnel productionsystems may be operated from surface facilities and/or facilities in thetunnel. Piping, holding facilities, and/or production wells may belocated in a production portion of the tunnels to be used to produce thefluids from the tunnels. The production portion of the tunnels may besealed with an impervious material (for example, cement or a steelliner). The formation fluids may be pumped to the surface through ariser and/or vertical production well located in the tunnels. In someembodiments, formation fluids from multiple horizontal productionwellbores drain into one vertical production well located in one tunnel.The formation fluids may be produced to the surface through the verticalproduction well.

In some embodiments, a production wellbore extending directly from thesurface to the hydrocarbon layer is used to produce fluids from thehydrocarbon layer. FIG. 261 depicts production well 206 extending fromthe surface into hydrocarbon layer 388. In certain embodiments,production well 206 is substantially horizontally located in hydrocarbonlayer 388. Production well 206 may, however, have any orientationdesired. For example, production well 206 may be a substantiallyvertical production well.

In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 261, production well 206 extendsfrom the surface of the formation and heat sources 202 extend fromtunnels 1034A in overburden 400 or another impermeable layer of theformation. Having the production well separated from the tunnels used toprovide heat sources into the formation may reduce risks associated withhaving hot formation fluids (for example, hot hydrocarbon fluids) in thetunnels and near electrical equipment or other heater equipment. In someembodiments, the distance between the location of production wells onthe surface and the location of fluid intakes, ventilation intakes,and/or other possible intakes into the tunnels below the surface ismaximized to minimize the risk of fluids reentering the formationthrough the intakes.

In some embodiments, wellbores 490 interconnect with utility tunnels1038 or other tunnels below the overburden of the formation. FIG. 262depicts a side view of an embodiment of underground treatment system1028. In certain embodiments, wellbores 490 are directionally drilled toutility tunnels 1038 in hydrocarbon layer 388. Wellbores 490 may bedirectional drilled from the surface or from tunnels located inoverburden 400. Directional drilling to intersect utility tunnel 1038 inhydrocarbon layer 388 may be easier than directional drilling tointersect another wellbore in the formation. Drilling equipment such as,but not limited to, magnetic transmission equipment, magnetic sensingequipment, acoustic transmission equipment, and acoustic sensingequipment may be located in utility tunnels 1038 and used fordirectional drilling of wellbores 490. The drilling equipment may beremoved from utility tunnels 1038 after directional drilling iscompleted. In some embodiments, utility tunnels 1038 are later used forcollection and/or production of fluids from the formation during the insitu heat treatment process.

EXAMPLES

Non-restrictive examples are set forth below.

Samples Using Fitting Embodiment Depicted in FIG. 41

Samples using an embodiment of fitting 422 similar to the embodimentdepicted in FIG. 41 were fabricated using a hydraulic compaction machinewith a medium voltage insulated conductor suitable for use as asubsurface heater on one side of the fitting and a medium voltageinsulated conductor suitable for use as an overburden cable on the otherside of the fitting. Magnesium oxide was used as the electricallyinsulating material in the fittings. The samples were 6 feet long fromthe end of one mineral insulated conductor to the other. Prior toelectrical testing, the samples were placed in a 6½ ft long oven anddried at 850° F. for 30 hours. Upon cooling to 150° F., the ends of themineral insulated conductors were sealed using epoxy. The samples werethen placed in an oven 3 feet long to heat up the samples and voltagewas applied to the samples using a 5 kV (max) hipot (high potential)tester, which was able to measure both total and real components of theleakage current. Three thermocouples were placed on the samples andaveraged for temperature measurement. The samples were placed in theoven with the fitting at the center of the oven. Ambient DC (directcurrent) responses and AC (alternating current) leakage currents weremeasured using the hipot tester.

A total of eight samples were tested at about 1000° F. and voltages upto 5 kV. One individual sample tested at 5 kV had a leakage current of2.28 mA, and another had a leakage current of 6.16 mA. Three moresamples with conductors connected together in parallel were tested to 5kV and had an aggregate leakage current of 11.7 mA, or 3.9 mA averageleakage current per cable, and the three samples were stable. Threeother samples with conductors connected together in parallel were testedto 4.4 kV and had an aggregate leakage current of 4.39 mA, but theycould not withstand a higher voltage without tripping the hipot tester(which occurs when leakage current exceeds 40 mA). One of the samplestested to 5 kV underwent further testing at ambient temperature tobreakdown. Breakdown occurred at 11 kV.

A total of eleven more samples were fabricated for additional breakdowntesting at ambient temperature. Three of the samples had insulatedconductors prepared with the mineral insulation cut perpendicular to thesheath while the eight other samples had insulated conductors preparedwith the mineral insulation cut at a 30° angle to the sheath. Of thefirst three samples with the perpendicular cut, the first samplewithstood up to 10.5 kV before breakdown, the second sample withstood upto 8 kV before breakdown, while the third sample withstood only 500 Vbefore breakdown, which suggested a flaw in fabrication of the thirdsample. Of the eight samples with the 30° cut, two samples withstood upto 10 kV before breakdown, three samples withstood between 8 kV and 9.5kV before breakdown, and three samples withstood no voltage or less than750 V, which suggested flaws in fabrication of these three samples.

Samples Using Fitting Embodiment Depicted in FIG. 44B

Three samples using an embodiment of fitting 442 similar to theembodiment depicted in FIG. 44B were made. The samples were made withtwo insulated conductors instead of three and were tested to breakdownat ambient temperature. One sample withstood 5 kV before breakdown, asecond sample withstood 4.5 kV before breakdown, and a third samplecould withstand only 500 V, which suggested a flaw in fabrication.

Samples Using Fitting Embodiment Depicted in FIGS. 50 and 51

Samples using an embodiment of fitting 470 similar to the embodimentdepicted in FIGS. 50 and 51 were used to connect two insulatedconductors with 1.2″ outside diameters and 0.7″ diameter conductors. MgOpowder (Muscle Shoals Minerals, Greenville, Tenn., U.S.A.) was used asthe electrically insulating material. The fitting was made from 347Hstainless steel tubing and had an outside diameter of 1.5″ with a wallthickness of 0.125″ and a length of 7.0″. The samples were placed in anoven and heated to 1050° F. and cycled through voltages of up to 3.4 kV.The samples were found to viable at all the voltages but could notwithstand higher voltages without tripping the hipot tester.

In a second test, samples similar to the ones described above weresubjected to a low cycle fatigue-bending test and then testedelectrically in the oven. These samples were placed in the oven andheated to 1050° F. and cycled through voltages of 350 V, 600 V, 800 V,1000 V, 1200 V, 1400 V, 1600 V, 1900 V, 2200 V, and 2500 V. Leakagecurrent magnitude and stability in the samples were acceptable up tovoltages of 1900 V. Increases in the operating range of the fitting maybe feasible using further electric field intensity reduction methodssuch as tapered, smoothed, or rounded edges in the fitting or addingelectric field stress reducers inside the fitting.

Examples for Semiconductor Layer in Insulated Conductor

COMSOL® simulations were used to assess the electric field effects ofusing a semiconductor layer in an insulated conductor heater such asthose depicted in FIGS. 30 and 31. In a first simulation, electric fieldcomponents were calculated for an insulated conductor heater with anirregular nickel copper core surface (a wavy core surface) surrounded bya BaTiO₃ semiconductor layer either on the surface of the core (as shownin FIG. 30) or in the magnesium oxide electrical insulator (as shown inFIG. 31). Electric field components were also calculated for a base casewith no semiconductor layer.

FIG. 263 depicts the electric field normal component (V/m) as a functionof the location along the length of the heater (m). Curve 1372 depictsthe electric field for the base case. Curve 1374 depicts the electricfield for the semiconductor layer on the surface. Curve 1376 depicts theelectric field for the semiconductor layer in the electrical insulator.As shown in FIG. 263, having the semiconductor layer on the surface ofthe core is best for mitigating electric field fluctuations (leastvariation in electric field normal component) due to the irregular(wavy) surface of the core.

In a second simulation, electric field strengths were calculated for aninsulated conductor heater with a nickel copper core surface having adefect (a notch in the core surface) surrounded by a BaTiO₃semiconductor layer either on the surface of the core (as shown in FIG.30) or in the magnesium oxide electrical insulator (as shown in FIG.31). Electric field strength was also calculated for a base case with nosemiconductor layer.

FIG. 264 depicts the electric field strength (V/m) versus distance fromthe core (m). Curve 1378 depicts the electric field strength for thebase case. Curve 1380 depicts the electric field strength for thesemiconductor layer on the surface. Curve 1382 depicts the electricfield strength for the semiconductor layer in the electrical insulator.As shown in FIG. 264, the electric field strength is reduced near thecore with the semiconductor layer on the surface (curve 1380).

Analytical calculations were used to assess electrical properties andthe effectiveness of the semiconductor layer for an insulated conductorheater as shown in FIG. 30. FIG. 265 depicts percent of maximumunscreened (no semiconductor layer) field strength (left axis) andnormalized semiconductor layer thickness (right axis) versus dielectricconstant ratio of the electrical insulator and semiconductor layer((dielectric constant of electrical insulator)/(dielectric constant ofsemiconductor layer)). As shown in FIG. 265, for a selected dielectricconstant ratio (as shown by the vertical arrow), there corresponds asemiconductor layer thickness that minimizes the maximum electric field.

FIG. 266 depicts electric field strength (V/inch) versus normalizeddistance from the core for several dielectric constant ratios. Curve1384 depicts electric field strength for a dielectric constant ratio of0.1. Curve 1386 depicts electric field strength for a dielectricconstant ratio of 0.5. Curve 1388 depicts electric field strength for adielectric constant ratio of 0.676. Curve 1390 depicts electric fieldstrength for a dielectric constant ratio of 0.8. Curve 1392 depictselectric field strength for an insulated conductor heater without asemiconductor layer (a dielectric strength ratio of 1). As shown in FIG.266, the lowest maximum electric field strength between the core and thejacket (sheath) is achieved with a dielectric constant ratio of 0.676(curve 1388).

Tar Sands Simulation

A STARS simulation was used to simulate heating of a tar sands formationusing the heater well pattern depicted in FIG. 117. The heaters had ahorizontal length in the tar sands formation of 600 m. The heating rateof the heaters was about 750 W/m. Production well 206B, depicted in FIG.117, was used at the production well in the simulation. The bottom holepressure in the horizontal production well was maintained at about 690kPa. The tar sands formation properties were based on Athabasca tarsands. Input properties for the tar sands formation simulation included:initial porosity equals 0.28; initial oil saturation equals 0.8; initialwater saturation equals 0.2; initial gas saturation equals 0.0; initialvertical permeability equals 250 millidarcy; initial horizontalpermeability equals 500 millidarcy; initial K_(v)/K_(h) equals 0.5;hydrocarbon layer thickness equals 28 m; depth of hydrocarbon layerequals 587 m; initial reservoir pressure equals 3771 kPa; distancebetween production well and lower boundary of hydrocarbon layer equals2.5 meter; distance of topmost heaters and overburden equals 9 meter;spacing between heaters equals 9.5 meter; initial hydrocarbon layertemperature equals 18.6° C.; viscosity at initial temperature equals 53Pa·s (53000 cp); and gas to oil ratio (GOR) in the tar equals 50standard cubic feet/standard barrel. The heaters were constant wattageheaters with a highest temperature of 538° C. at the sand face and aheater power of 755 W/m. The heater wells had a diameter of 15.2 cm.

FIG. 267 depicts a temperature profile in the formation after 360 daysusing the STARS simulation. The hottest spots are at or near heaters412. The temperature profile shows that portions of the formationbetween the heaters are warmer than other portions of the formation.These warmer portions create more mobility between the heaters andcreate a flow path for fluids in the formation to drain downwardstowards the production wells.

FIG. 268 depicts an oil saturation profile in the formation after 360days using the STARS simulation. Oil saturation is shown on a scale of0.00 to 1.00 with 1.00 being 100% oil saturation. The oil saturationscale is shown in the sidebar. Oil saturation, at 360 days, is somewhatlower at heaters 412 and production well 206B. FIG. 269 depicts the oilsaturation profile in the formation after 1095 days using the STARSsimulation. Oil saturation decreased overall in the formation with agreater decrease in oil saturation near the heaters and in between theheaters after 1095 days. FIG. 270 depicts the oil saturation profile inthe formation after 1470 days using the STARS simulation. The oilsaturation profile in FIG. 270 shows that the oil is mobilized andflowing towards the lower portions of the formation. FIG. 271 depictsthe oil saturation profile in the formation after 1826 days using theSTARS simulation. The oil saturation is low in a majority of theformation with some higher oil saturation remaining at or near thebottom of the formation in portions below production well 206B. This oilsaturation profile shows that a majority of oil in the formation hasbeen produced from the formation after 1826 days.

FIG. 272 depicts the temperature profile in the formation after 1826days using the STARS simulation. The temperature profile shows arelatively uniform temperature profile in the formation except atheaters 412 and in the extreme (corner) portions of the formation. Thetemperature profile shows that a flow path has been created between theheaters and to production well 206B.

FIG. 273 depicts oil production rate 1066 (bbl/day) (left axis) and gasproduction rate 1068 (ft³/day)(right axis) versus time (years). The oilproduction and gas production plots show that oil is produced at earlystages (0-1.5 years) of production with little gas production. The oilproduced during this time was most likely heavier mobilized oil that isunpyrolyzed. After about 1.5 years, gas production increased sharply asoil production decreased sharply. The gas production rate quicklydecreased at about 2 years. Oil production then slowly increased up to amaximum production around about 3.75 years. Oil production then slowlydecreased as oil in the formation was depleted.

From the STARS simulation, the ratio of energy out (produced oil and gasenergy content) versus energy in (heater input into the formation) wascalculated to be about 12 to 1 after about 5 years. The total recoverypercentage of oil in place was calculated to be about 60% after about 5years. Thus, producing oil from a tar sands formation using anembodiment of the heater and production well pattern depicted in FIG.117 may produce high oil recoveries and high energy out to energy inratios.

Tar Sands Example

A STARS simulation was used in combination with experimental analysis tosimulate an in situ heat treatment process of a tar sands formation.Heating conditions for the experimental analysis were determined fromreservoir simulations. The experimental analysis included heating a cellof tar sands from the formation to a selected temperature and thenreducing the pressure of the cell (blow down) to 100 psig. The processwas repeated for several different selected temperatures. While heatingthe cells, formation and fluid properties of the cells were monitoredwhile producing fluids to maintain the pressure below an optimumpressure of 12 MPa before blow down and while producing fluids afterblow down (although the pressure may have reached higher pressures insome cases, the pressure was quickly adjusted and does not affect theresults of the experiments). FIGS. 274-281 depict results from thesimulation and experiments.

FIG. 274 depicts weight percentage of original bitumen in place (OBIP)(left axis) and volume percentage of OBIP (right axis) versustemperature (° C.). The term “OBIP” refers, in these experiments, to theamount of bitumen that was in the laboratory vessel with 100% being theoriginal amount of bitumen in the laboratory vessel. Plot 1070 depictsbitumen conversion (correlated to weight percentage of OBIP). Plot 1070shows that bitumen conversion began to be significant at about 270° C.and ended at about 340° C. The bitumen conversion was relatively linearover the temperature range.

Plot 1072 depicts barrels of oil equivalent from producing fluids andproduction at blow down (correlated to volume percentage of OBIP). Plot1074 depicts barrels of oil equivalent from producing fluids (correlatedto volume percentage of OBIP). Plot 1076 depicts oil production fromproducing fluids (correlated to volume percentage of OBIP). Plot 1078depicts barrels of oil equivalent from production at blow down(correlated to volume percentage of OBIP). Plot 1080 depicts oilproduction at blow down (correlated to volume percentage of OBIP). Asshown in FIG. 274, the production volume began to significantly increaseas bitumen conversion began at about 270° C. with a significant portionof the oil and barrels of oil equivalent (the production volume) comingfrom producing fluids and only some volume coming from the blow down.

FIG. 275 depicts bitumen conversion percentage (weight percentage of(OBIP)) (left axis) and oil, gas, and coke weight percentage (as aweight percentage of OBIP) (right axis) versus temperature (° C.). Plot1082 depicts bitumen conversion (correlated to weight percentage ofOBIP). Plot 1084 depicts oil production from producing fluids correlatedto weight percentage of OBIP (right axis). Plot 1086 depicts cokeproduction correlated to weight percentage of OBIP (right axis). Plot1088 depicts gas production from producing fluids correlated to weightpercentage of OBIP (right axis). Plot 1090 depicts oil production fromblow down production correlated to weight percentage of OBIP (rightaxis). Plot 1092 depicts gas production from blow down productioncorrelated to weight percentage of OBIP (right axis).

FIG. 275 shows that coke production begins to increase at about 280° C.and maximizes around 340° C. FIG. 275 also shows that the majority ofoil and gas production is from produced fluids with only a smallfraction from blow down production.

FIG. 276 depicts API gravity (°) (left axis) of produced fluids, blowdown production, and oil left in place along with pressure (psig) (rightaxis) versus temperature (° C.). Plot 1094 depicts API gravity ofproduced fluids versus temperature. Plot 1096 depicts API gravity offluids produced at blow down versus temperature. Plot 1098 depictspressure versus temperature. Plot 1100 depicts API gravity of oil(bitumen) in the formation versus temperature. FIG. 276 shows that theAPI gravity of the oil in the formation remains relatively constant atabout 10° API and that the API gravity of produced fluids and fluidsproduced at blow down increases slightly at blow down.

FIGS. 277A-D depict gas-to-oil ratios (GOR) in thousand cubic feet perbarrel (Mcf/bbl) (y-axis) versus temperature (° C.) (x-axis) fordifferent types of gas at a low temperature blow down (about 277° C.)and a high temperature blow down (at about 290° C.). FIG. 277A depictsthe GOR versus temperature for carbon dioxide (CO₂). Plot 1102 depictsthe GOR for the low temperature blow down. Plot 1104 depicts the GOR forthe high temperature blow down. FIG. 277B depicts the GOR versustemperature for hydrocarbons. FIG. 277C depicts the GOR for hydrogensulfide (H₂₅). FIG. 277D depicts the GOR for hydrogen (H₂). In FIGS.277B-D, the GORs were approximately the same for both the lowtemperature and high temperature blow downs. The GORs for CO₂ (shown inFIGS. 277A-D) was different for the high temperature blow down and thelow temperature blow down. The reason for the difference in the GORs forCO₂ may be that CO₂ was produced early (at low temperatures) by thehydrous decomposition of dolomite and other carbonate minerals andclays. At these low temperatures, there was hardly any produced oil sothe GOR is very high because the denominator in the ratio is practicallyzero. The other gases (hydrocarbons, H₂S, and H₂) were producedconcurrently with the oil either because they were all generated by theupgrading of bitumen (for example, hydrocarbons, H₂, and oil) or becausethey were generated by the decomposition of minerals (such as pyrite) inthe same temperature range as that of bitumen upgrading. Thus, when theGOR was calculated, the denominator (oil) was non zero for hydrocarbons,H₂S, and H₂.

FIG. 278 depicts coke yield (weight percentage) (y-axis) versustemperature (° C.) (x-axis). Plot 1106 depicts bitumen and kerogen cokeas a weight percent of original mass in the formation. Plot 1108 depictsbitumen coke as a weight percent of original bitumen in place (OBIP) inthe formation. FIG. 278 shows that kerogen coke is already present at atemperature of about 260° C. (the lowest temperature cell experiment)while bitumen coke begins to form at about 280° C. and maximizes atabout 340° C.

FIGS. 279A-D depict assessed hydrocarbon isomer shifts in fluidsproduced from the experimental cells as a function of temperature andbitumen conversion. Bitumen conversion and temperature increase fromleft to right in the plots in FIGS. 279A-D with the minimum bitumenconversion being 10%, the maximum bitumen conversion being 100%, theminimum temperature being 277° C., and the maximum temperature being350° C. The arrows in FIGS. 279A-D show the direction of increasingbitumen conversion and temperature.

FIG. 279A depicts the hydrocarbon isomer shift of n-butane-δ¹³C₄percentage (y-axis) versus propane-δ¹³C₃ percentage (x-axis). FIG. 279Bdepicts the hydrocarbon isomer shift of n-pentane-δ¹³C₅ percentage(y-axis) versus propane-δ¹³C₃ percentage (x-axis). FIG. 279C depicts thehydrocarbon isomer shift of n-pentane-δ¹³C₅ percentage (y-axis) versusn-butane-δ¹³C₄ percentage (x-axis). FIG. 279D depicts the hydrocarbonisomer shift of i-pentane-δ¹³C₅ percentage (y-axis) versusi-butane-δ¹³C₄ percentage (x-axis). FIGS. 279A-D show that there is arelatively linear relationship between the hydrocarbon isomer shifts andboth temperature and bitumen conversion. The relatively linearrelationship may be used to assess formation temperature and/or bitumenconversion by monitoring the hydrocarbon isomer shifts in fluidsproduced from the formation.

FIG. 280 depicts weight percentage (Wt %) (y-axis) of saturates fromSARA analysis of the produced fluids versus temperature (° C.) (x-axis).The logarithmic relationship between the weight percentage of saturatesand temperature may be used to assess formation temperature bymonitoring the weight percentage of saturates in fluids produced fromthe formation.

FIG. 281 depicts weight percentage (Wt %) (y-axis) of n-C₇ of theproduced fluids versus temperature (° C.) (x-axis). The linearrelationship between the weight percentage of n-C₇ and temperature maybe used to assess formation temperature by monitoring the weightpercentage of n-C₇ in fluids produced from the formation.

Pre-Heating Using Heaters for Infectivity Before Steam Drive Example

An example uses the embodiment depicted in FIGS. 123 and 124 to preheat.Injection wells 602 and production wells 206 are substantially verticalwells. Heaters 412 are long substantially horizontal heaters positionedso that the heaters pass in the vicinity of injection wells 602. Heaters412 intersect the vertical well patterns slightly displaced from thevertical wells.

The following conditions were assumed for purposes of this example:

(a) heater well spacing; s=330 ft;(b) formation thickness; h=100 ft;(c) formation heat capacity; ρc=35 BTU/cu. ft.-° F.;(d) formation thermal conductivity; λ=1.2 BTU/ft-hr-° F.;(e) electric heating rate; q_(h)=200 watts/ft;(f) steam injection rate; q_(s)=500 bbls/day;(g) enthalpy of steam; h_(s)=1000 BTU/lb;(h) time of heating; t=1 year;(i) total electric heat injection; Q_(E)=BTU/pattern/year;(j) radius of electric heat; r=ft; and(k) total steam heat injected; Q=BTU/pattern/year.

Electric heating for one well pattern for one year is given by:

Q _(E) =q _(h) ·t·s (BTU/pattern/year);  (EQN. 12)

with Q_(E)=(200 watts/ft)[0.001 kw/watt](1 yr)[365 day/yr][24hr/day][3413 BTU/kw·hr](330 ft)=1.9733×10⁹ BTU/pattern/year.

Steam heating for one well pattern for one year is given by:

Q _(s) =q _(s) ·t·h _(s) (BTU/pattern/year);  (EQN. 13)

with Q_(s)=(500 bbls/day) (1 yr) [365 day/yr][1000 BTU/lb][350lbs/bbl]=63.875×10⁹ BTU/pattern/year.

Thus, electric heat divided by total heat is given by:

Q _(E)/(Q _(E) +Q _(s))×100=3% of the total heat.  (EQN. 14)

Thus, the electrical energy is only a small fraction of the total heatinjected into the formation.

The actual temperature of the region around a heater is described by anexponential integral function. The integrated form of the exponentialintegral function shows that about half the energy injected is nearlyequal to about half of the injection well temperature. The temperaturerequired to reduce viscosity of the heavy oil is assumed to be 500° F.The volume heated to 500° F. by an electric heater in one year is givenby:

V_(E)=πr².  (EQN. 15)

The heat balance is given by:

Q _(E)=(πr _(E) ²)(s)(ρc)(ΔT).  (EQN. 16)

Thus, r_(E) can be solved for and is found to be 10.4 ft. For anelectric heater operated at 1000° F., the diameter of a cylinder heatedto half that temperature for one year would be about 23 ft. Depending onthe permeability profile in the injection wells, additional horizontalwells may be stacked above the one at the bottom of the formation and/orperiods of electric heating may be extended. For a ten year heatingperiod, the diameter of the region heated above 500° F. would be about60 ft.

If all the steam were injected uniformly into the steam injectors overthe 100 ft. interval for a period of one year, the equivalent volume offormation that could be heated to 500° F. would be give by:

Q _(s)=(πr _(s) ²)(s)(ρc)(ΔT).  (EQN. 17)

Solving for r_(s) gives an r_(s) of 107 ft. This amount of heat would besufficient to heat about ¾ of the pattern to 500° F.

Tar Sands Oil Recovery Example

A STARS simulation was used in combination with experimental analysis tosimulate an in situ heat treatment process of a tar sands formation. Theexperiments and simulations were used to determine oil recovery(measured by volume percentage (vol %) of oil in place (bitumen inplace)) versus API gravity of the produced fluid as affected by pressurein the formation. The experiments and simulations also were used todetermine recovery efficiency (percentage of oil (bitumen) recovered)versus temperature at different pressures.

FIG. 282 depicts oil recovery (volume percentage bitumen in place (vol %BIP)) versus API gravity (°) as determined by the pressure (MPa) in theformation. As shown in FIG. 282, oil recovery decreases with increasingAPI gravity and increasing pressure up to a certain pressure (about 2.9MPa in this experiment). Above that pressure, oil recovery and APIgravity decrease with increasing pressure (up to about 10 MPa in theexperiment). Thus, it may be advantageous to control the pressure in theformation below a selected value to get higher oil recovery along with adesired API gravity in the produced fluid.

FIG. 283 depicts recovery efficiency (%) versus temperature (° C.) atdifferent pressures. Curve 1110 depicts recovery efficiency versustemperature at 0 MPa. Curve 1112 depicts recovery efficiency versustemperature at 0.7 MPa. Curve 1114 depicts recovery efficiency versustemperature at 5 MPa. Curve 1116 depicts recovery efficiency versustemperature at 10 MPa. As shown by these curves, increasing the pressurereduces the recovery efficiency in the formation at pyrolysistemperatures (temperatures above about 300° C. in the experiment). Theeffect of pressure may be reduced by reducing the pressure in theformation at higher temperatures, as shown by curve 1118. Curve 1118depicts recovery efficiency versus temperature with the pressure being 5MPa up until about 380° C., when the pressure is reduced to 0.7 MPa. Asshown by curve 1118, the recovery efficiency can be increased byreducing the pressure even at higher temperatures. The effect of higherpressures on the recovery efficiency is reduced when the pressure isreduced before hydrocarbons (oil) in the formation have been convertedto coke.

Molten Salt Circulation System Simulation

A simulation was run using molten salt in a circulation system to heatan oil shale formation. The well spacing was 30 ft, and the treatmentarea was 5000 ft of formation surrounding a substantially horizontalportion of the piping. The overburden had a thickness of 984 ft. Thepiping in the formation includes an inner conduit positioned in an outerconduit. Adjacent to the treatment area, the outer conduit is a 4″schedule 80 pipe, and the molten salt flows through the annular regionbetween the outer conduit and the inner conduit. Through the overburdenof the formation, the molten salt flows through the inner conduit. Afirst fluid switcher in the piping changes the flow from the innerconduit to the annular region before the treatment area, and a secondfluid switcher in the piping changes the flow from the annular region tothe inner conduit after the treatment area.

FIG. 284 depicts time to reach a target reservoir temperature of 340° C.for different mass flow rates or different inlet temperatures. Curve1120 depicts the case for an inlet molten salt temperature of 550° C.and a mass flow rate of 6 kg/s. The time to reach the target temperaturewas 1405 days. Curve 1122 depicts the case for an inlet molten salttemperature of 550° C. and a mass flow rate of 12 kg/s. The time toreach the target temperature was 1185 days. Curve 1124 depicts the casefor an inlet molten salt temperature of 700° C. and a mass flow rate of12 kg/s. The time to reach the target temperature was 745 days.

FIG. 285 depicts molten salt temperature at the end of the treatmentarea and power injection rate versus time for the cases where the inletmolten salt temperature was 550° C. Curve 1126 depicts molten salttemperature at the end of the treatment area for the case when the massflow rate was 6 kg/s. Curve 1128 depicts molten salt temperature at theend of the treatment area for the case when the mass flow rate was 12kg/s. Curve 1130 depicts power injection rate into the formation (W/ft)for the case when the mass flow rate was 6 kg/s. Curve 1132 depictspower injection rate into the formation (W/ft) for the case when themass flow rate was 12 kg/s. The circled data points indicate whenheating was stopped.

FIG. 286 and FIG. 287 depicts simulation results for 8000 ft heatingportions of heaters positioned in the Grosmont formation of Canada fortwo different mass flow rates. FIG. 286 depicts results for a mass flowrate of 18 kg/s. Curve 1134 depicts heater inlet temperature of about540° C. Curve 1136 depicts heater outlet temperature. Curve 1138 depictsheated volume average temperature. Curve 1140 depicts power injectionrate into the formation. FIG. 287 depicts results for a mass flow rateof 12 kg/s. Curve 1142 depicts heater inlet temperature of about 540° C.Curve 1144 depicts heater outlet temperature. Curve 1146 depicts heatedvolume average temperature. Curve 1148 depicts power injection rate intothe formation.

This examples demonstrates a method of using a system that includes atleast one fluid circulation system configured to provide hot heattransfer fluid to a plurality of heaters in the formation, and aplurality of heaters in the formation coupled to the circulation system.At least one of the heaters includes a first conduit, a second conduitpositioned in the first conduit, and a first flow switcher. The flowswitcher is configured to allow a fluid flowing through the secondconduit to flow through the annular region between the first conduit andthe second conduit.

Power Requirement Simulation

A simulation to determine the power requirements to heat a formationwith a molten salt was performed. Molten salt was circulated throughwellbores in a hydrocarbon containing formation and the powerrequirements to heat the formation using molten salt were assessed overtime. The distance between the wellbores was varied to determine theeffect upon the power requirements.

FIG. 288 depicts curve 1150 of power (W/ft) (y-axis) versus time (yr)(x-axis) of in situ heat treatment power injection requirements. FIG.289 depicts power (W/ft) (y-axis) versus time (days) (x-axis) of in situheat treatment power injection requirements for different spacingsbetween wellbores. Curves 1152-1160 depict the results in FIG. 289.Curve 1152 depicts power required versus time for heater wellbores witha spacing of about 14.4 meters. Curve 1154 depicts power required versustime for heater wellbores with a spacing of about 13.2 meters. Curve1156 depicts power required versus time for the Grosmont formation inAlberta, Canada, with heater wellbores laid out in a hexagonal patternand with a spacing of about 12 meters. Curve 1158 depicts power requiredversus time for heater wellbores with a spacing of about 9.6 meters.Curve 1160 depicts power required versus time for heater wellbores witha spacing of about 7.2 meters.

From the graph in FIG. 289, wellbore spacing represented by curve 1158is the spacing which approximately correlates to the power output overtime of certain nuclear reactors (for example, at least some nuclearreactors having a power output that decays at a rate of about 1/E, forexample, in about 4 to 9 years). Curves 1152-1156, in FIG. 289, depictthe required power output for heater wellbores with spacing ranging fromabout 12 meters to about 14.4 meters. Spacing between heater wellboresgreater than about 12 meters may require more power input than certainnuclear reactors may be able to provide. Spacing between heaterwellbores less than about 8 meters (for example, as represented by curve1160 in FIG. 289) may not make efficient use of the power input providedby certain nuclear reactors.

FIG. 290 depicts reservoir average temperature (° C.) (y-axis) versustime (days) (x-axis) of in situ heat treatment for different spacingsbetween wellbores. Curves 1152-1160 depict the temperature increase inthe formation over time based upon the power input requirements for thewell spacing. A target temperature for in situ heat treatment ofhydrocarbon containing formations, in some embodiments, for example maybe about 350° C. The target temperature for a formation may varydepending on, at least, the type of formation and/or the desiredhydrocarbon products. The spacing between the wellbores for curves1152-1160 in FIG. 290 are the same for curves 1152-1160 in FIG. 289.Curves 1152-1156, in FIG. 290, depict the increasing temperature in theformation over time for heater wellbores with spacing ranging from about12 meters to about 14.4 meters. Spacing between heater wellbores greaterthan about 12 meters may heat the formation too slowly such that moreenergy may be required than certain nuclear reactors may be able toprovide (especially after about 5 years in the current example). Spacingbetween heater wellbores less than about 8 meters (for example, asrepresented by curve 1160 in FIG. 290) may heat the formation tooquickly for some in situ heat treatment situations. From the graph inFIG. 290, wellbore spacing represented by curve 1158 may be the spacingthat achieves a typical target temperature of about 350° C. in adesirable time frame (for example, about 5 years).

Aqueous Molten Salt Simulation

A simulation was run to simulate forming a heat transfer fluid in acirculation system to heat a subsurface formation. The well spacing was50 ft and the treatment area was 2000 ft of formation surrounding asubstantially horizontal portion of the piping. The overburden had athickness of 1400 ft. The heater in the formation was L-shaped andincluded an inlet conduit and an outlet conduit. Adjacent to thetreatment area, the outlet conduit was a 6″ schedule 80 pipe, andincluded two insulated pipes that formed a channel (inlet conduit)inside the pipe. The heat transfer fluid flowed down the inlet conduitand back up through the annulus (outlet conduit) between the outside ofthe two inner pipes and the inner walls of the 6″ pipe. Initially, waterwas circulated at ambient temperatures through the circulation system.While circulating, the temperature of the water was raised to about 100°C. Solar salt was added to the circulating system over a period of 48hours to form an aqueous molten salt mixture. The temperature of thesolution was raised over time to evaporate the water from the saltsolution to form the molten salt.

FIG. 291 depicts time (hour) versus temperature (° C.) and molten saltconcentration in weight percent. Curve 1162 depicts salt concentrationover time. Curve 1164 depicts temperatures at the inlet of the inletconduit over time. Curve 1166 depicts the temperature at the outlet ofthe outlet conduit over time. Curve 1168 depicts the aqueous molten saltmixture temperature over time. Data point 1170 depicts the start of theaddition of the salt into water circulating through the piping. Datapoint 1172 depicts the temperature at which water starts to evaporate.The shaded area between curves 1164 and 1166 depicts the amount ofenergy delivered to the section of the formation to be heated. Theshaded area between curves 1166 and 1168 depicts the amount of energyused for evaporation of water from the aqueous molten salt mixture. FIG.292 depicts heat transfer rates versus time. Curve 1174 depicts rate ofheat transfer to the portion of the formation to be heated over time.Curve 1176 depicts rate of heat loss to the overburden over time.

This example demonstrates a method of heating a subsurface formationthat includes circulating a first heat transfer fluid through pipingpositioned in a wellbore; heating at least a portion of the first heattransfer fluid; and adding one or more salts to the heated portion ofthe first heat transfer fluid to form a heated salt solution. The saltsolution contains the first heat transfer fluid and the one or moresalts. At least a portion of a formation is heated to a firsttemperature with the heated salt solution. At least a portion of thefirst heat transfer fluid is removed to form a second heat transferfluid. The portion of the formation is heated to a second temperaturewith the second heat transfer fluid with the second temperature beinghigher than the first temperature.

Subsurface Deasphalting

STARS® simulations including a PVT/kinetic model were used to assess thesubsurface deasphalting of formation fluid. FIG. 293 is a graphicalrepresentation of asphaltene H/C molar ratios of hydrocarbons having aboiling point greater than 520° C. versus time (days). Data 1478represents predicted asphaltene H/C molar ratios for hydrocarbons havinga boiling point greater than 520° C. obtained from a formation heated byan in situ heat treatment process. As shown from data 1478, theasphaltene H/C molar ratios of hydrocarbons having a boiling pointgreater than 520° C. changes over time. Specifically, it is predictedthat the asphaltene H/C molar ratio falls below 1 being seen after aheating for a period of time. Data 1480 represents predicted asphalteneH/C molar ratios for hydrocarbons having a boiling point greater than520° C. of hydrocarbons during treatment of the formation using an insitu heat treatment process under deasphalting conditions as describedby the equation:

$\begin{matrix}{{{{SR}\left( {H/C} \right)}^{''}{deasphalted}^{''}} = \begin{matrix}{{m_{1}*{{SR}\left( {H/C} \right)}_{{from}\mspace{14mu} {STARS}}} +} \\{{m_{2}*\left\lbrack \frac{{{vol}\left( {{naphtha}/{kerosene}} \right)}_{{in}\mspace{14mu} {liquid}\mspace{14mu} {phase}}}{{vol}\; S\; R} \right\rbrack_{{from}\mspace{14mu} {STARS}}} + b}\end{matrix}} & {{EQN}.\mspace{14mu} 18}\end{matrix}$

where SR is hydrocarbons having a boiling point greater than 520° C.,m₁=0.243, m₂=0.84, and b=0.99.

1482 represents measured asphaltene H/C molar ratios for hydrocarbonshaving a boiling point greater than 520° C. after treating of theformation using an in situ heat treatment process and subsurfacedeasphalting conditions. As shown in FIG. 293, the asphaltene content ofhydrocarbon in the formation may be adjusted to maintain an asphalteneH/C molar ratio above 1 by varying the volume of naphtha/kerosene and/orvolume of hydrocarbons having a boiling point greater than 520° C.

ISHT Residue/Asphalt/Bitumen Composition Example

In situ heat treatment (ISHT) residue (8.2 grams) having the propertieslisted in TABLE 11 was added to asphalt/bitumen (91.8 grams, pen grade160/220, Petit Couronne refinery) at 190° C. and stirred for 20 minunder low shear to form a ISHT residue/asphalt/bitumen mixture. The ISHTresidue/asphalt/bitumen mixture was equivalent to a 70/100 pen grade(paving grade) asphalt/bitumen. The properties of the ISHTresidue/asphalt/bitumen blend are listed in TABLE 12.

TABLE 11 Properties Value Distillation, ° C. SIMDIS 750 Initial boilingpoint 407 Final boiling point >750 Saturates, Aromatics, Resins andAsphaltenes, wt % modified GSEE method (roofing felt manufacturers groupSaturates 2.4 Aromatics 10.3 Resins 35.8 Asphaltenes 51.6 Sulfur, wt %,ASTM Test Method, D2622, 1.6 Total Nitrogen, wt %, ASTM Test MethodD5762 2.4 Metals, ppm ICP, ASTM Test Method D5185 Aluminum 2 Calcium 5Iron 100 Potassium 9 Magnesium <1 Sodium 10 Nickel 50 Vanadium 5 Pen@60° C., 0.1 mm EN 1426 3 R&B Temperature, ° C. EN 1427 139 Relativedensity at 25° C., densitymeter 1.094

TABLE 12 ISHT Spec. Properties Residue Blend (EN12591) Properties offresh blend Pen, 25° C., 0.1 mm 85 70-100 Softening Point, ° C. 45.443-51  Flash point, ° C. >310 >230 Fraass breaking point, ° C. −26 −10Dynamic Viscosity, Pa · s at 100° C. 2.3179 at 135° C. 0.3112 at 150° C.0.1569 at 170° C. 0.0711 Properties after RTFOT ageing (EN12607-1)Softening point, ° C. 51.6 >45 Mass change, % +0.13 <0.8 Retained pen, %60.0 >46 Delta softening point, ° C. 6.2 <9

The water absorption of a concrete mixture having the components listedin TABLE 13 was determined as a function of time during immersion at awater temperature of 60° C. Stiffness was characterized via the indirecttensile stiffness modulus (ISTM) as detailed below.

TABLE 13 Component Mass (g) wt % Filler Wigro 79.8 6.7% Drain sand 34.92.9% Westerschelde sand 68.6 5.8% Crushed sand 310.3 26.1%  2/6 DutchCrushed Gravel 172 14.5%  4/8 Dutch Crushed Gravel 229.4 19.3%  8/11Dutch Crushed Gravel 229.4 19.3%  ISHT residue/Bitumen blend 65.2 5.5%Total 1189.6 100% 

Asphalt Concrete Mixture

Specimen preparation. The components in TABLE 13 were mixed at a 150° C.and compacted at a temperature of 140° C. to form cylinders having adiameter of 100 mm and a thickness of 63 mm thickness (Marshallspecimens). The specimens were dried and the bulk density and voids inmixture (VIM) were determined on each specimen according to EN12697-6and EN12697-8 respectively.

Conditioning of the specimens. Specimens were first immersed in a waterbath at 4° C. and vacuum was applied for a 30 minutes period in order todecrease pressure from atmospheric pressure to 2.4 kPa (24 mbar). Thepressure was maintained at 2.4 kPa for 2.5 hours. The specimens wereimmersed in water at a temperature of 60° C. for several days and thendried at room temperature.

Water adsorption was determined after vacuum treatment and after waterconditioning of the specimens at 60° C. The conditioned specimens wereplaced in 20° C. water for 1 hour. The specimens were removed and theamount of water absorbed was compared with the voids content of thespecimen. This ratio is presented as the degree of water saturation(volume ratio in percent).

Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus test was performed according to EN12697-26 annex C. The ITSM test was carried out in the NottinghamAsphalt Tester using a rise time of 124 ms, 5 μm horizontal deformationand a temperature of 20° C. The ITSM values of the dry specimens weredetermined after 3 hours conditioning at 20° C. in air. After waterconditioning, the ITSM test at 20° C. was carried out rapidly after theweighting of the specimen, to avoid the loss of water. The ITSM test wasalso carried out during the drying period for the specimens. The resultsare expressed as percentage of the dry, initial ITSM value.

FIG. 294 depicts percentage of degree of saturation (volume water/airvoids) versus time during immersion at a water temperature of 60° C.FIG. 295 depicts retained indirect tensile strength stiffness modulusversus time during immersion at a water temperature of 60° C. In FIGS.294 and 295, plots 1178 and 1190 are 70/100 pen grade asphalt/bitumenwithout any adhesion improvers, plots 1180 and 1192 are a 70/100 pengrade asphalt/bitumen with 0.5% by weight acidic type adhesion improver,plots 1182 and 1194 are a 70/100 pen grade asphalt/bitumen with 1% byweight acidic type adhesion improver, plots 1184 and 1196 are a 70/100pen grade asphalt/bitumen with 0.5% by weight amine type adhesionimprover, plots 1186 and 1198 are a 70/100 pen grade asphalt/bitumenwith 1% by weight amine type adhesion improver, and plots 1188 are 1200are a ISHT/asphalt/bitumen composition. In FIG. 294, the initial rise inwater absorption was due to vacuum treatment of the samples to inducewater into the asphalt/bitumen compositions. After 10 days of treatment,the ISHT/asphalt/bitumen composition (plot 1188) had similar wateradsorption characteristics as the asphalt/bitumen blends containingamines and/or acidic-type adhesion improvers. In FIG. 295,ISHT/asphalt/bitumen composition (plot 1188) had similar or betterretained tensile strength stiffness modulus than asphalt/bitumen blendscontaining amines and/or acidic-type adhesion improvers.

As shown in Tables 11 and 12 and FIGS. 294 and 295, anISHT/asphalt/bitumen composition has properties suitable for use as abinder for paving, enhanced water shedding properties, and enhancedtensile strength characteristics.

In this patent, certain U.S. patents, U.S. patent applications, andother materials (for example, articles) have been incorporated byreference. The text of such U.S. patents, U.S. patent applications, andother materials is, however, only incorporated by reference to theextent that no conflict exists between such text and the otherstatements and drawings set forth herein. In the event of such conflict,then any such conflicting text in such incorporated by reference U.S.patents, U.S. patent applications, and other materials is specificallynot incorporated by reference in this patent.

Further modifications and alternative embodiments of various aspects ofthe invention may be apparent to those skilled in the art in view ofthis description. Accordingly, this description is to be construed asillustrative only and is for the purpose of teaching those skilled inthe art the general manner of carrying out the invention. It is to beunderstood that the forms of the invention shown and described hereinare to be taken as the presently preferred embodiments. Elements andmaterials may be substituted for those illustrated and described herein,parts and processes may be reversed, and certain features of theinvention may be utilized independently, all as would be apparent to oneskilled in the art after having the benefit of this description of theinvention. Changes may be made in the elements described herein withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope of the invention as described in thefollowing claims. In addition, it is to be understood that featuresdescribed herein independently may, in certain embodiments, be combined.

1-662. (canceled)
 663. A heating system for a subsurface formation,comprising: a first tubular located in the subsurface formation; asecond tubular, wherein at least a portion of the first tubular ispositioned in the second tubular; and two or more elongated electricalconductors, wherein at least a portion of the electrical conductors arepositioned between an outer surface of the first tubular and an innersurface of the second tubular; wherein the electrical conductors areconfigured to provide heat to the subsurface formation when anelectrical current is applied to the electrical conductors.
 664. Theheating system of claim 663, wherein the elongated electrical conductorsare configured to contact the inner surface of the second tubular. 665.The heating system of claim 663, wherein the elongated electricalconductors are located in a substantially horizontal section of awellbore.
 666. The heating system of claim 665, wherein the wellborecomprises a relatively vertical section connecting the substantiallyhorizontal section to the surface of the formation.
 667. The heatingsystem of claim 663, wherein the electrical conductors comprise alead-in section that provides little or no heat at or near a junctionbetween a substantially horizontal section of a wellbore and arelatively vertical section of the wellbore.
 668. The heating system ofclaim 663, wherein the electrical conductors are configured to provideheat to a hydrocarbon containing layer in the subsurface formation whenthe electrical current is applied to the electrical conductors.
 669. Asystem for producing fluids from a subsurface formation, comprising: awellbore in the subsurface formation, wherein the wellbore is configuredto allow fluids from the formation to enter a substantially horizontalsection of the wellbore; a first tubular located in the wellbore,wherein the first tubular has an opening at an end of the first tubulardistal from the surface of the formation; a second tubular in thewellbore, wherein at least a portion of the first tubular is positionedin the second tubular; and two or more elongated electrical conductors,wherein at least a portion of the electrical conductors are positionedbetween an outer surface of the first tubular and an inner surface ofthe second tubular; wherein the electrical conductors are configured toprovide heat in the wellbore when an electrical current is applied tothe electrical conductors; and wherein the system is configured toproduce fluids that enter the wellbore to the surface of the formationthrough the inside of the first tubular.
 670. The system of claim 669,wherein the substantially horizontal section of the wellbore is locatedin a hydrocarbon containing layer of the formation.
 671. The system ofclaim 669, wherein the electrical conductors are located in thesubstantially horizontal section of the wellbore.
 672. The system ofclaim 669, wherein the wellbore comprises a relatively vertical sectionconnecting the substantially horizontal section to the surface of theformation, and the system is configured to gas lift fluids through therelatively vertical section.
 673. The system of claim 669, wherein theelectrical conductors comprise a lead-in section that provides little orno heat at or near a junction between the substantially horizontalsection of the wellbore and a relatively vertical section of thewellbore.
 674. The system of claim 669, wherein the elongated electricalconductors are configured to contact the inner surface of the secondtubular.
 675. A method for producing fluids from a subsurface formation,comprising: allowing fluids to enter a substantially horizontal sectionof a wellbore in the subsurface formation; producing at least some ofthe fluids through the inside of a first tubular located in thewellbore, wherein the produced fluids enter the first tubular through anopening located at an end of the first tubular distal from the surfaceof the formation; and providing heat to at least a part of thesubstantially horizontal section of the wellbore by applying electricalcurrent to two or more electrical conductors positioned between theouter surface of the first tubular and the inner surface of a secondtubular that at least partially surrounds the first tubular.
 676. Themethod of claim 675, wherein the substantially horizontal section of thewellbore is located in a hydrocarbon containing layer of the formation.677. The method of claim 675, wherein the electrical conductors arelocated in the substantially horizontal section of the wellbore. 678.The method of claim 675, further comprising gas lifting the producedfluids through a relatively vertical section of the wellbore to thesurface of the formation, wherein the relatively vertical sectionconnects the substantially horizontal section of the wellbore to thesurface of the formation.
 679. The method of claim 675, furthercomprising providing little or no heat at or near a junction between thesubstantially horizontal section of the wellbore and a relativelyvertical section of the wellbore.
 680. The method of claim 675, furthercomprising forcing fluids to enter the first tubular at the distal endof the first tubular. 681-969. (canceled)